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sqlglot.generator

   1from __future__ import annotations
   2
   3import logging
   4import re
   5import typing as t
   6from collections import defaultdict
   7from functools import reduce
   8
   9from sqlglot import exp
  10from sqlglot.errors import ErrorLevel, UnsupportedError, concat_messages
  11from sqlglot.helper import apply_index_offset, csv, name_sequence, seq_get
  12from sqlglot.jsonpath import ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS, JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS
  13from sqlglot.time import format_time
  14from sqlglot.tokens import TokenType
  15
  16if t.TYPE_CHECKING:
  17    from sqlglot._typing import E
  18    from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import DialectType
  19
  20logger = logging.getLogger("sqlglot")
  21
  22ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile(r"\\(\d+)")
  23
  24
  25class _Generator(type):
  26    def __new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs):
  27        klass = super().__new__(cls, clsname, bases, attrs)
  28
  29        # Remove transforms that correspond to unsupported JSONPathPart expressions
  30        for part in ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS - klass.SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS:
  31            klass.TRANSFORMS.pop(part, None)
  32
  33        return klass
  34
  35
  36class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  37    """
  38    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  39
  40    Args:
  41        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  42            Default: False.
  43        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  44            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  45            True or 'always': Always quote.
  46            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  47        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  48            Default: False.
  49        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  50            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  51            Default: 2.
  52        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  53            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  54            Default: 2.
  55        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  56            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  57            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  58            False: Disables function name normalization.
  59        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  60            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  61        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  62            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  63            Default: 3
  64        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  65            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  66            Default: False
  67        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  68            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  69            line length.
  70            Default: 80
  71        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  72            Default: True
  73    """
  74
  75    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  76        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  77        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
  78        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
  79        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  80        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  82        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  83        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  84        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  85        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  86        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  87        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  88        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  89        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  91        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  92        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
  94        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  95        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  96        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  97        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  98        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
  99        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 100        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 101        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 102        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 103        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 104        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 105        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 106        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 107        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
 108            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 109        ),
 110        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
 111            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 112        ),
 113        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 114        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 115        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 116        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 117        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 118        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 119        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 120        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 121        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 122        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 123        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 124        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 128        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 129        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 130        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 131        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 132            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 133        ),
 134        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 135        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 136        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 137        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 138        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 139        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 140        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 141        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 142        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 143        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 144        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 145        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 146        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 147        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 148        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.args.get("zone")),
 149        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 150        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 151        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 152        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 153        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 154        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 155        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 156        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 157        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 158        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 159        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 160    }
 161
 162    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 163    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 164    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 165
 166    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 167    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 168    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 169
 170    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 171    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 172
 173    # Always do <set op> distinct or <set op> all
 174    EXPLICIT_SET_OP = False
 175
 176    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 177    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 178
 179    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 180    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 181
 182    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 183    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 184
 185    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 186    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 187
 188    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 189    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 190
 191    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 192    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 193
 194    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 195    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 196
 197    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 198    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 199
 200    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 201    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 202
 203    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 204    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 205
 206    # Whether join hints should be generated
 207    JOIN_HINTS = True
 208
 209    # Whether table hints should be generated
 210    TABLE_HINTS = True
 211
 212    # Whether query hints should be generated
 213    QUERY_HINTS = True
 214
 215    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 216    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 217
 218    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 219    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 220
 221    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 222    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 223
 224    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 225    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 226
 227    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 228    RETURNING_END = True
 229
 230    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 231    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 232
 233    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 234    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 235
 236    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 237    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 238
 239    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 240    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 241
 242    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 243    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 244    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 245    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 246
 247    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 248    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 249
 250    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 251    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 252
 253    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 254    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 255
 256    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 257    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 258
 259    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 260    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 261
 262    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 263    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 264
 265    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 266    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 267
 268    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 269    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 270
 271    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 272    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 273
 274    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 275    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 276
 277    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 278    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 279
 280    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 281    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 282
 283    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 284    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 285
 286    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 287    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 288
 289    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 290    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 291
 292    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 293    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 294
 295    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 296    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 297
 298    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 299    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 300
 301    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 302    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 303
 304    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 305    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 306
 307    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 308    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 309
 310    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 311    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 312
 313    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 314    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 315
 316    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 317    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 318
 319    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 320    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 321
 322    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 323    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 324    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 325
 326    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 327    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 328
 329    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 330    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 331
 332    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 333    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 334
 335    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 336    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 337
 338    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 339    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 340
 341    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 342    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 343
 344    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 345    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 346    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 347    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 348
 349    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 350    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 351
 352    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 353    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 354
 355    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 356    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 357
 358    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 359    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 360
 361    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 362    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 363
 364    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 365    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 366
 367    # The HEX function name
 368    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 369
 370    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 371    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 372
 373    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 374    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 375
 376    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 377        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 378        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 379        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 380        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 381        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 382        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 383        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 384        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 385        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 386        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 387    }
 388
 389    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 390        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 391        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 392        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 393        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 394        "DAYS": "DAY",
 395        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 396        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 397        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 398        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 399    }
 400
 401    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 402        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 403        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 404        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 405        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 406        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 407            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 408            if e.args.get("windows")
 409            else ""
 410        ),
 411    }
 412
 413    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 414
 415    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 416
 417    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 418    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 419
 420    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 421        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 422        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 423        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 424        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 425        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 426        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 427        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 428        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 429        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 430        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 431        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 432        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 433        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 434        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 435        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 436        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 437        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 438        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 439        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 440        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 441        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 442        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 443        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 444        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 445        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 446        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 447        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 448        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 449        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 450        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 451        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 452        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 453        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 454        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 455        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 456        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 457        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 458        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 459        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 460        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 461        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 462        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 463        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 464        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 465        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 466        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 467        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 468        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 469        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 470        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 471        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 472        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 473        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 474        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 475        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 476        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 477        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 478        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 479        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 480        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 481        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 482        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 483        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 484        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 485        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 486        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 487        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 488        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 489        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 490        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 491        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 492        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 493        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 494        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 495        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 496        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 497        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 498        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 499        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 500        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 501        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 502    }
 503
 504    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 505    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 506
 507    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 508    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 509        exp.Create,
 510        exp.Delete,
 511        exp.Drop,
 512        exp.From,
 513        exp.Insert,
 514        exp.Join,
 515        exp.Select,
 516        exp.SetOperation,
 517        exp.Update,
 518        exp.Where,
 519        exp.With,
 520    )
 521
 522    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 523    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 524        exp.Binary,
 525        exp.SetOperation,
 526    )
 527
 528    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 529    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 530        exp.Column,
 531        exp.Literal,
 532        exp.Neg,
 533        exp.Paren,
 534    )
 535
 536    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 537        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 538        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 539        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 540        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 541    }
 542
 543    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 544    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 545
 546    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 547
 548    __slots__ = (
 549        "pretty",
 550        "identify",
 551        "normalize",
 552        "pad",
 553        "_indent",
 554        "normalize_functions",
 555        "unsupported_level",
 556        "max_unsupported",
 557        "leading_comma",
 558        "max_text_width",
 559        "comments",
 560        "dialect",
 561        "unsupported_messages",
 562        "_escaped_quote_end",
 563        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 564        "_next_name",
 565    )
 566
 567    def __init__(
 568        self,
 569        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 570        identify: str | bool = False,
 571        normalize: bool = False,
 572        pad: int = 2,
 573        indent: int = 2,
 574        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 575        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 576        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 577        leading_comma: bool = False,
 578        max_text_width: int = 80,
 579        comments: bool = True,
 580        dialect: DialectType = None,
 581    ):
 582        import sqlglot
 583        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 584
 585        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 586        self.identify = identify
 587        self.normalize = normalize
 588        self.pad = pad
 589        self._indent = indent
 590        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 591        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 592        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 593        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 594        self.comments = comments
 595        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 596
 597        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 598        self.normalize_functions = (
 599            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 600        )
 601
 602        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 603        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 604            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 605        )
 606        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 607            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 608        )
 609
 610        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 611
 612    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 613        """
 614        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 615
 616        Args:
 617            expression: The syntax tree.
 618            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 619                it is safer to copy.
 620
 621        Returns:
 622            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 623        """
 624        if copy:
 625            expression = expression.copy()
 626
 627        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 628
 629        self.unsupported_messages = []
 630        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 631
 632        if self.pretty:
 633            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 634
 635        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 636            return sql
 637
 638        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 639            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 640                logger.warning(msg)
 641        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 642            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 643
 644        return sql
 645
 646    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 647        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 648        if (
 649            not expression.parent
 650            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 651            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 652        ):
 653            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 654
 655            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 656
 657        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 658            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 659
 660            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 661
 662        return expression
 663
 664    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 665        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 666            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 667        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 668
 669    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 670        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 671
 672    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 673        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 674
 675    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 676        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 677        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 678        return comment
 679
 680    def maybe_comment(
 681        self,
 682        sql: str,
 683        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 684        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 685        separated: bool = False,
 686    ) -> str:
 687        comments = (
 688            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 689            if self.comments
 690            else None
 691        )
 692
 693        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 694            return sql
 695
 696        comments_sql = " ".join(
 697            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 698        )
 699
 700        if not comments_sql:
 701            return sql
 702
 703        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 704
 705        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 706            return (
 707                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 708                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 709                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 710            )
 711
 712        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 713
 714    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 715        this_sql = (
 716            self.sql(expression)
 717            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 718            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 719        )
 720        if not this_sql:
 721            return "()"
 722
 723        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 724        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 725
 726    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 727        original = self.identify
 728        self.identify = False
 729        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 730        self.identify = original
 731        return result
 732
 733    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 734        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 735            return name.upper()
 736        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 737            return name.lower()
 738        return name
 739
 740    def indent(
 741        self,
 742        sql: str,
 743        level: int = 0,
 744        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 745        skip_first: bool = False,
 746        skip_last: bool = False,
 747    ) -> str:
 748        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 749            return sql
 750
 751        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 752        lines = sql.split("\n")
 753
 754        return "\n".join(
 755            (
 756                line
 757                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 758                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 759            )
 760            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 761        )
 762
 763    def sql(
 764        self,
 765        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 766        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 767        comment: bool = True,
 768    ) -> str:
 769        if not expression:
 770            return ""
 771
 772        if isinstance(expression, str):
 773            return expression
 774
 775        if key:
 776            value = expression.args.get(key)
 777            if value:
 778                return self.sql(value)
 779            return ""
 780
 781        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 782
 783        if callable(transform):
 784            sql = transform(self, expression)
 785        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 786            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 787
 788            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 789                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 790            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 791                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 792            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 793                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 794            else:
 795                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 796        else:
 797            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 798
 799        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 800
 801    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 802        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 803        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 804        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 805
 806    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 807        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 808        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 809        options = expression.args.get("options")
 810        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 811        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 812        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 813        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 814        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 815
 816    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 817        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 818            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 819        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 820        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 821
 822    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 823        return ".".join(
 824            self.sql(part)
 825            for part in (
 826                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 827                expression.args.get("db"),
 828                expression.args.get("table"),
 829                expression.args.get("this"),
 830            )
 831            if part
 832        )
 833
 834    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 835        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 836
 837        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 838            join_mark = ""
 839            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 840
 841        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 842
 843    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 844        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 845        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 846        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 847        return f"{position}{this}"
 848
 849    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 850        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 851        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 852        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 853        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 854        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 855        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 856        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 857        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 858
 859        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 860            kind = ""
 861
 862        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 863
 864    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 865        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 866        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 867        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 868
 869    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 870        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 871        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 872            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 873        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 874            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 875        else:
 876            persisted = ""
 877        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 878
 879    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 880        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 881
 882    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 883        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 884            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 885        else:
 886            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 887
 888        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 889
 890    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 891        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 892    ) -> str:
 893        this = ""
 894        if expression.this is not None:
 895            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 896            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 897
 898        start = expression.args.get("start")
 899        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 900        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 901        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 902        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 903        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 904        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 905        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 906        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 907        cycle_sql = ""
 908
 909        if cycle is not None:
 910            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 911            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 912
 913        sequence_opts = ""
 914        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 915            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 916            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 917
 918        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 919        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 920
 921        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 922
 923    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 924        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 925    ) -> str:
 926        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 927        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 928        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 929
 930    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 931        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 932    ) -> str:
 933        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 934
 935    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 936        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 937
 938    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 939        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 940
 941    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 942        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 943        if desc is not None:
 944            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 945        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 946
 947    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 948        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 949        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 950        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 951        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 952        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 953        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 954        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 955
 956    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 957        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 958
 959    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 960        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 961        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 962        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 963
 964        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 965
 966        properties_sql = ""
 967        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 968            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 969        ):
 970            properties_sql = self.sql(
 971                exp.Properties(
 972                    expressions=[
 973                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 974                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 975                    ]
 976                )
 977            )
 978
 979            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
 980                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
 981            elif not self.pretty:
 982                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
 983                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
 984
 985        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 986        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 987
 988        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 989        if expression_sql:
 990            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 991
 992            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 993                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 994                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 995                        exp.Properties(
 996                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 997                        ),
 998                        wrapped=False,
 999                    )
1000                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1001                else:
1002                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
1003
1004        postindex_props_sql = ""
1005        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1006            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1007                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1008                wrapped=False,
1009                prefix=" ",
1010            )
1011
1012        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1013        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1014        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1015
1016        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1017        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1018
1019        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1020        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1021            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1022                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1023                sep=" ",
1024                prefix=" ",
1025                wrapped=False,
1026            )
1027
1028        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1029
1030        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1031        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1032            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1033                exp.Properties(
1034                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1035                ),
1036                sep=" ",
1037                prefix=" ",
1038                wrapped=False,
1039            )
1040
1041        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1042        no_schema_binding = (
1043            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1044        )
1045
1046        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1047        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1048
1049        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1050        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1051
1052    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1053        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1054        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1055        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1056        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1057        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1058        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1059        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1060        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1061        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1062        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1063
1064        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1065        if cache is None:
1066            cache_str = ""
1067        elif cache is True:
1068            cache_str = " CACHE"
1069        else:
1070            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1071
1072        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1073        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1074
1075        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1076
1077    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1078        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1079        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1080        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1081        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1082
1083    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1084        style = expression.args.get("style")
1085        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1086        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1087
1088    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1089        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1090        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1091
1092    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1093        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1094        if with_:
1095            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1096        return sql
1097
1098    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1099        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1100        recursive = (
1101            "RECURSIVE "
1102            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1103            else ""
1104        )
1105
1106        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1107
1108    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1109        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1110
1111        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1112        if materialized is False:
1113            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1114        elif materialized:
1115            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1116
1117        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1118
1119    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1120        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1121        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1122        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1123
1124        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1125            columns = ""
1126            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1127
1128        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1129            alias = self._next_name()
1130
1131        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1132
1133    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1134        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1135        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1136            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1137        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1138
1139    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1140        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1141        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1142            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1143        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1144
1145    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1146        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1147        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1148            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1149        return this
1150
1151    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1152        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1153        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1154
1155        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1156            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1157            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1158        else:
1159            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1160            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1161
1162        if escape:
1163            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1164            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1165        else:
1166            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1167            escape_sql = ""
1168
1169        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1170            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1171
1172        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1173
1174    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1175        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1176        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1177
1178    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1179        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1180        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1181        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1182        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1183
1184    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1185        type_value = expression.this
1186
1187        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1188            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1189        else:
1190            type_sql = (
1191                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1192                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1193                else type_value
1194            )
1195
1196        nested = ""
1197        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1198        values = ""
1199
1200        if interior:
1201            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1202                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1203                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1204                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1205                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1206                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1207            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1208                nested = f" {interior}"
1209            else:
1210                nested = f"({interior})"
1211
1212        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1213        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1214            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1215            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1216        ):
1217            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1218
1219        return type_sql
1220
1221    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1222        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1223        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1224        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1225        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1226
1227    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1228        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1229        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1230        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1231        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1232        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1233        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1234        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1235        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1236        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1237        if self.RETURNING_END:
1238            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1239        else:
1240            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1241        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1242
1243    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1244        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1245        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1246        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1247        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1248        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1249        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1250        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1251        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1252        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1253        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1254        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1255        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1256        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1257
1258    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1259        return self.set_operations(expression)
1260
1261    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1262        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1263
1264    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1265        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1266        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1267        count = expression.args.get("count")
1268        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1269        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1270            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1271        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1272        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1273
1274    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1275        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1276            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1277            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1278            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1279
1280        agg = expression.this
1281        agg_arg = agg.this
1282        cond = expression.expression.this
1283        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1284        return self.sql(agg)
1285
1286    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1287        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1288            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1289            return ""
1290
1291        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1292
1293    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1294        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1295        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1296        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1297        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1298        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1299        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1300        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1301        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1302        if include:
1303            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1304        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1305        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1306        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1307        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1308        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1309        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1310
1311        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1312
1313    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1314        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1315        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1316        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1317        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1318        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1319        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1320        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1321
1322        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1323
1324        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1325        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1326
1327    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1328        text = expression.name
1329        lower = text.lower()
1330        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1331        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1332        if (
1333            expression.quoted
1334            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1335            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1336            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1337        ):
1338            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1339        return text
1340
1341    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1342        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1343        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1344            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1345
1346        return text
1347
1348    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1349        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1350        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1351            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1352        return text
1353
1354    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1355        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1356        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1357        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1358        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1359        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1360
1361    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1362        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1363        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1364
1365    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1366        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1367
1368    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1369        root_properties = []
1370        with_properties = []
1371
1372        for p in expression.expressions:
1373            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1374            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1375                with_properties.append(p)
1376            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1377                root_properties.append(p)
1378
1379        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1380        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1381
1382        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1383            with_props = " " + with_props
1384
1385        return root_props + with_props
1386
1387    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1388        if properties.expressions:
1389            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1390        return ""
1391
1392    def properties(
1393        self,
1394        properties: exp.Properties,
1395        prefix: str = "",
1396        sep: str = ", ",
1397        suffix: str = "",
1398        wrapped: bool = True,
1399    ) -> str:
1400        if properties.expressions:
1401            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1402            if expressions:
1403                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1404                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1405        return ""
1406
1407    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1408        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1409
1410    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1411        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1412        for p in properties.expressions:
1413            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1414            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1415                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1416            else:
1417                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1418
1419        return properties_locs
1420
1421    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1422        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1423            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1424        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1425
1426    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1427        property_cls = expression.__class__
1428        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1429            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1430
1431        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1432        if not property_name:
1433            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1434
1435        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1436
1437    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1438        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1439            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1440            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1441
1442            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1443            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1444                like = f"({like})"
1445
1446            return like
1447
1448        if expression.expressions:
1449            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1450
1451        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1452        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1453
1454    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1455        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1456        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1457        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1458
1459    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1460        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1461        local = expression.args.get("local")
1462        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1463        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1464        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1465        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1466        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1467
1468    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1469        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1470        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1471        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1472
1473    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1474        if expression.args.get("default"):
1475            property = "DEFAULT"
1476        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1477            property = "ON"
1478        else:
1479            property = "OFF"
1480        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1481
1482    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1483        if expression.args.get("no"):
1484            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1485        if expression.args.get("default"):
1486            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1487
1488        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1489        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1490
1491    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1492        default = expression.args.get("default")
1493        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1494        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1495        if default or minimum or maximum:
1496            if default:
1497                prop = "DEFAULT"
1498            elif minimum:
1499                prop = "MINIMUM"
1500            else:
1501                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1502            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1503        units = expression.args.get("units")
1504        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1505        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1506
1507    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1508        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1509        always = expression.args.get("always")
1510        default = expression.args.get("default")
1511        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1512        never = expression.args.get("never")
1513
1514        if autotemp is not None:
1515            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1516        elif always:
1517            prop = "ALWAYS"
1518        elif default:
1519            prop = "DEFAULT"
1520        elif manual:
1521            prop = "MANUAL"
1522        elif never:
1523            prop = "NEVER"
1524        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1525
1526    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1527        no = expression.args.get("no")
1528        no = " NO" if no else ""
1529        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1530        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1531        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1532        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1533        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1534
1535    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1536        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1537            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1538        if expression.this:
1539            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1540            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1541            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1542
1543        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1544        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1545        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1546
1547    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1548        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1549
1550        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1551        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1552            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1553        else:
1554            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1555
1556        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1557
1558    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1559        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1560        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1561        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1562        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1563        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1564        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1565        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1566
1567    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1568        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1569        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1570        statistics_sql = ""
1571        if statistics is not None:
1572            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1573        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1574
1575    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1576        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1577        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1578        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1579        data_consistency = (
1580            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1581        )
1582        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1583        retention_period = (
1584            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1585        )
1586
1587        if this:
1588            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1589        else:
1590            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1591
1592        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1593
1594        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1595
1596    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1597        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1598        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1599
1600        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1601            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1602        else:
1603            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1604
1605        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1606        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1607        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1608        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1609        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1610        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1611        if is_function:
1612            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1613        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1614
1615        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1616        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1617        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1618        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1619        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1620        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1621        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1622        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1623
1624        if self.RETURNING_END:
1625            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1626        else:
1627            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1628
1629        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1630        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1631
1632    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1633        return self.set_operations(expression)
1634
1635    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1636        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1637
1638    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1639        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1640
1641    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1642        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1643        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1644        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1645        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1646        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1647
1648    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1649        return expression.name
1650
1651    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1652        return expression.name
1653
1654    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1655        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1656
1657        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1658        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1659
1660        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1661        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1662        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1663
1664        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1665        if expressions:
1666            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1667            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1668
1669        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1670
1671    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1672        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1673
1674    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1675        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1676        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1677        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1678        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1679        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1680        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1681        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1682        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1683        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1684        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1685        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1686        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1687        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1688
1689    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1690        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1691
1692    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1693        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1694        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1695        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1696        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1697
1698    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1699        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1700        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1701        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1702        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1703
1704    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1705        return ".".join(
1706            self.sql(part)
1707            for part in (
1708                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1709                expression.args.get("db"),
1710                expression.args.get("this"),
1711            )
1712            if part is not None
1713        )
1714
1715    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1716        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1717        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1718        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1719        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1720        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1721        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1722        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1723        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1724        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1725        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1726        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1727        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1728        joins = self.indent(
1729            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1730        )
1731        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1732
1733        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1734        if file_format:
1735            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1736            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1737            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1738
1739        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1740        if ordinality:
1741            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1742            alias = ""
1743
1744        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1745        if when:
1746            table = f"{table} {when}"
1747
1748        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1749
1750    def tablesample_sql(
1751        self,
1752        expression: exp.TableSample,
1753        sep: str = " AS ",
1754        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1755    ) -> str:
1756        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1757            table = expression.this.copy()
1758            table.set("alias", None)
1759            this = self.sql(table)
1760            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1761        else:
1762            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1763            alias = ""
1764
1765        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1766        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1767        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1768        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1769        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1770        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1771        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1772        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1773        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1774
1775        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1776        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1777            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1778
1779        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1780        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1781            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1782
1783        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1784        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1785            expr = f"({expr})"
1786
1787        return (
1788            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1789        )
1790
1791    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1792        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1793
1794        if expression.this:
1795            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1796            if not expressions:
1797                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1798
1799            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1800            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1801            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1802            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1803            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1804
1805        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1806        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1807        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1808        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1809        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1810        if include_nulls is not None:
1811            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1812        else:
1813            nulls = ""
1814        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1815
1816    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1817        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1818        kind = expression.text("kind")
1819        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1820        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1821
1822    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1823        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1824
1825    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1826        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1827        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1828        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1829        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1830        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1831        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1832        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1833        if self.RETURNING_END:
1834            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1835        else:
1836            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1837        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1838        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1839
1840    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1841        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1842
1843        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1844        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1845            args = self.expressions(expression)
1846            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1847            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1848            values = (
1849                f"({values})"
1850                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1851                else values
1852            )
1853            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1854
1855        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1856        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1857        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1858
1859        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1860
1861        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1862            row = tup.expressions
1863
1864            if i == 0 and column_names:
1865                row = [
1866                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1867                ]
1868
1869            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1870
1871        if self.pretty:
1872            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1873            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1874            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1875            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1876            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1877
1878        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1879        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1880        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1881
1882    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1883        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1884
1885    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1886        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1887        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1888        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1889
1890    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1891        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1892
1893    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1894        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1895        if group_by_all is True:
1896            modifier = " ALL"
1897        elif group_by_all is False:
1898            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1899        else:
1900            modifier = ""
1901
1902        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1903
1904        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1905        grouping_sets = (
1906            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1907        )
1908
1909        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1910        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1911            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1912        else:
1913            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1914            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1915
1916        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1917        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1918            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1919        else:
1920            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1921            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1922
1923        groupings = csv(
1924            grouping_sets,
1925            cube_sql,
1926            rollup_sql,
1927            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1928            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1929        )
1930
1931        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1932            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1933
1934        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1935
1936    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1937        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1938        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1939
1940    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1941        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1942        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1943        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1944        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1945        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1946        return start + connect
1947
1948    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1949        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1950
1951    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1952        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1953            side = None
1954        else:
1955            side = expression.side
1956
1957        op_sql = " ".join(
1958            op
1959            for op in (
1960                expression.method,
1961                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1962                side,
1963                expression.kind,
1964                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1965            )
1966            if op
1967        )
1968        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1969        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1970        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1971        using = expression.args.get("using")
1972
1973        if not on_sql and using:
1974            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1975
1976        this = expression.this
1977        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1978
1979        if on_sql:
1980            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1981            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1982            if using:
1983                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1984            else:
1985                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1986        elif not op_sql:
1987            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1988                return f" {this_sql}"
1989
1990            return f", {this_sql}"
1991
1992        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
1993            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1994
1995        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
1996
1997    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1998        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1999        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2000        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2001
2002    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2003        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2004
2005        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2006        if cross_apply is True:
2007            op = "INNER JOIN "
2008        elif cross_apply is False:
2009            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2010        else:
2011            op = ""
2012
2013        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2014
2015    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2016        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2017
2018        if expression.args.get("view"):
2019            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2020            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2021            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2022            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2023            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2024            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2025
2026        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2027        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2028        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2029
2030    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2031        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2032
2033        args = [
2034            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2035            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2036            if e
2037        ]
2038
2039        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2040        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2041        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2042        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2043
2044        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2045
2046    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2047        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2048        value = expression.expression
2049        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2050        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2051        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2052        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2053
2054    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2055        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2056        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2057        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2058        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2059        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2060        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2061        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2062        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2063
2064    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2065        expressions = (
2066            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2067        )
2068        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2069        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2070
2071    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2072        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2073
2074    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2075        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2076            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2077            return ""
2078
2079        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2080        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2081        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2082        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2083
2084        if wait is not None:
2085            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2086                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2087            else:
2088                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2089
2090        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2091
2092    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2093        text = expression.this or ""
2094        if expression.is_string:
2095            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2096        return text
2097
2098    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2099        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2100            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2101            text = "".join(
2102                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2103            )
2104
2105        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2106            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2107        )
2108
2109    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2110        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2111        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2112        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2113        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2114        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2115        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2116        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2117        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2118        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2119        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2120        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2121
2122    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2123        return "NULL"
2124
2125    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2126        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2127
2128    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2129        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2130        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2131        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2132        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2133        interpolated_values = [
2134            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2135            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2136        ]
2137        interpolate = (
2138            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2139        )
2140        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2141
2142    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2143        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2144        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2145        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2146        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2147        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2148        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2149        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2150
2151    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2152        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2153
2154    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2155        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2156
2157    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2158        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2159
2160    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2161        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2162        asc = not desc
2163
2164        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2165        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2166        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2167        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2168        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2169
2170        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2171
2172        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2173        nulls_sort_change = ""
2174        if nulls_first and (
2175            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2176        ):
2177            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2178        elif (
2179            nulls_last
2180            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2181            and not nulls_are_last
2182        ):
2183            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2184
2185        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2186        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2187            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2188            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2189                self.unsupported(
2190                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2191                )
2192                nulls_sort_change = ""
2193            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2194                if expression.this.is_int:
2195                    self.unsupported(
2196                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2197                    )
2198                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2199                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2200                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2201                nulls_sort_change = ""
2202
2203        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2204        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2205
2206        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2207
2208    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2209        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2210        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2211
2212        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2213
2214        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2215
2216    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2217        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2218        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2219        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2220        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2221        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2222        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2223        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2224        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2225        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2226        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2227        definition_sqls = [
2228            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2229            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2230        ]
2231        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2232        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2233        body = "".join(
2234            (
2235                partition,
2236                order,
2237                measures,
2238                rows,
2239                after,
2240                pattern,
2241                define,
2242            )
2243        )
2244        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2245        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2246        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2247
2248    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2249        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2250
2251        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2252            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2253        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2254            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2255
2256        return csv(
2257            *sqls,
2258            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2259            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2260            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2261            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2262            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2263            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2264            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2265            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2266            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2267            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2268            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2269            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2270            self.options_modifier(expression),
2271            sep="",
2272        )
2273
2274    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2275        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2276        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2277
2278    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2279        return ""
2280
2281    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2282        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2283    ) -> t.List[str]:
2284        return [
2285            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2286            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2287        ]
2288
2289    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2290        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2291        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2292        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2293
2294    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2295        into = expression.args.get("into")
2296        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2297            into.pop()
2298
2299        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2300        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2301        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2302        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2303
2304        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2305        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2306            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2307            limit.pop()
2308        else:
2309            top = ""
2310
2311        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2312
2313        if kind:
2314            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2315                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2316            else:
2317                if kind == "STRUCT":
2318                    expressions = self.expressions(
2319                        sqls=[
2320                            self.sql(
2321                                exp.Struct(
2322                                    expressions=[
2323                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2324                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2325                                        else e
2326                                        for e in expression.expressions
2327                                    ]
2328                                )
2329                            )
2330                        ]
2331                    )
2332                kind = ""
2333
2334        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2335        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2336        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2337        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2338        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2339            expression,
2340            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2341            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2342            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2343        )
2344
2345        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2346
2347        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2348            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2349                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2350            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2351                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2352            else:
2353                table_kind = ""
2354            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2355
2356        return sql
2357
2358    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2359        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2360        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2361        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2362
2363    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2364        if expression.expressions:
2365            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2366        return ""
2367
2368    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2369        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2370        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2371        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2372        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2373        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2374        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2375        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2376
2377    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2378        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2379        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2380
2381    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2382        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2383        kind = expression.text("kind")
2384        if kind:
2385            kind = f"{kind}."
2386        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2387
2388    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2389        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2390
2391    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2392        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2393        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2394
2395        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2396        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2397
2398        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2399        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2400
2401    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2402        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2403        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2404
2405    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2406        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
2407            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2408            order = expression.args.get("order")
2409
2410            if limit or order:
2411                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2412
2413                if limit:
2414                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2415                if order:
2416                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2417                return self.sql(select)
2418
2419        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2420        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2421
2422        while stack:
2423            node = stack.pop()
2424
2425            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
2426                stack.append(node.expression)
2427                stack.append(
2428                    self.maybe_comment(
2429                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2430                        comments=node.comments,
2431                        separated=True,
2432                    )
2433                )
2434                stack.append(node.this)
2435            else:
2436                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2437
2438        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2439        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2440        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2441
2442    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2443        return self.set_operations(expression)
2444
2445    def union_op(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2446        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_SET_OP else ""
2447        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2448        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2449        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2450
2451    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2452        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2453
2454        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2455        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2456
2457        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2458            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2459                alias.append("columns", offset)
2460
2461        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2462            columns = alias.columns
2463            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2464        else:
2465            alias = self.sql(alias)
2466
2467        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2468        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2469            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2470        else:
2471            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2472                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2473            elif offset:
2474                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2475            else:
2476                suffix = alias
2477
2478        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2479
2480    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2481        return ""
2482
2483    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2484        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2485        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2486
2487    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2488        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2489        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2490        order = expression.args.get("order")
2491        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2492        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2493        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2494        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2495
2496        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2497
2498        first = expression.args.get("first")
2499        if first is None:
2500            first = ""
2501        else:
2502            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2503
2504        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2505            return f"{this} {alias}"
2506
2507        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2508        return f"{this} ({args})"
2509
2510    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2511        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2512        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2513
2514    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2515        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2516        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2517        end = (
2518            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2519            or "CURRENT ROW"
2520        )
2521        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2522
2523    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2524        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2525        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2526        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2527
2528    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2529        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2530        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2531        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2532        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2533
2534    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2535        return apply_index_offset(
2536            expression.this,
2537            expression.expressions,
2538            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2539        )
2540
2541    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2542        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2543        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2544        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2545
2546    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2547        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2548
2549    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2550        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2551        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2552            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2553                this = self.wrap(this)
2554            return f"ANY{this}"
2555        return f"ANY {this}"
2556
2557    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2558        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2559
2560    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2561        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2562        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2563
2564        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2565            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2566            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2567
2568        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2569
2570        if default:
2571            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2572
2573        statements.append("END")
2574
2575        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2576            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2577
2578        return " ".join(statements)
2579
2580    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2581        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2582        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2583        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2584
2585    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2586        order = expression.args.get("order")
2587        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2588        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2589
2590    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2591        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2592        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2593        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2594
2595    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2596        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2597
2598        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2599            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2600        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2601            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2602        else:
2603            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2604
2605    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2606        args = expression.expressions
2607        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2608            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2609
2610        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2611            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2612
2613        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2614            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2615
2616        return args
2617
2618    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2619        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2620
2621        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2622        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2623            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2624
2625        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2626
2627    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2628        return self.func(
2629            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2630        )
2631
2632    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2633        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2634        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2635
2636    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2637        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2638        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2639        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2640        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2641        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2642        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2643        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2644        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2645
2646    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2647        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2648        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2649        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2650        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2651
2652    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2653        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2654
2655    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2656        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2657        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2658        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2659
2660    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2661        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2662
2663    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2664        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2665        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2666            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2667
2668        return path
2669
2670    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2671        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2672            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2673            if not callable(transform):
2674                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2675                return ""
2676
2677            return transform(self, expression)
2678
2679        if isinstance(expression, int):
2680            return str(expression)
2681
2682        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2683            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2684            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2685        else:
2686            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2687            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2688
2689        return escaped
2690
2691    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2692        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2693
2694    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2695        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2696        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2697
2698        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2699        if unique_keys is not None:
2700            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2701        else:
2702            unique_keys = ""
2703
2704        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2705        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2706        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2707        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2708
2709        return self.func(
2710            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2711            *expression.expressions,
2712            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2713        )
2714
2715    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2716        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2717
2718    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2719        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2720        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2721        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2722        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2723        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2724        return self.func(
2725            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2726        )
2727
2728    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2729        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2730        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2731        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2732        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2733        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2734        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2735        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2736        return self.func(
2737            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2738            this,
2739            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2740        )
2741
2742    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2743        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2744        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2745        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2746
2747        if nested_schema:
2748            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2749
2750        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2751        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2752        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2753        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2754
2755    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2756        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2757
2758    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2759        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2760        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2761        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2762        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2763        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2764        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2765        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2766        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2767        return self.func(
2768            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2769        )
2770
2771    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2772        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2773        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2774        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2775        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2776        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2777        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2778
2779    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2780        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2781        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2782        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2783        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2784        with_ = (
2785            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2786            if expressions
2787            else ""
2788        )
2789        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2790
2791    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2792        query = expression.args.get("query")
2793        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2794        field = expression.args.get("field")
2795        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2796
2797        if query:
2798            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2799        elif unnest:
2800            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2801        elif field:
2802            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2803        else:
2804            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2805
2806        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2807
2808    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2809        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2810
2811    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2812        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2813        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2814            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2815        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2816
2817        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2818            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2819            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2820
2821        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2822        if this:
2823            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2824            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2825
2826        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2827
2828    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2829        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2830
2831    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2832        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2833        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2834        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2835        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2836        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2837        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2838
2839    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2840        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2841
2842    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2843        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2844        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2845
2846    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2847        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2848        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2849        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2850        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2851
2852    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2853        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2854
2855    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2856        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2857        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2858        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2859
2860    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2861        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2862        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2863
2864        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2865            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2866        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2867            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2868
2869        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2870
2871    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2872        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2873
2874    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2875        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2876        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2877        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2878
2879    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2880        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2881        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2882        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2883
2884    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2885        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2886        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2887        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2888
2889    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2890        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2891
2892    def and_sql(
2893        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2894    ) -> str:
2895        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2896
2897    def or_sql(
2898        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2899    ) -> str:
2900        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2901
2902    def xor_sql(
2903        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2904    ) -> str:
2905        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2906
2907    def connector_sql(
2908        self,
2909        expression: exp.Connector,
2910        op: str,
2911        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2912    ) -> str:
2913        if stack is not None:
2914            if expression.expressions:
2915                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2916            else:
2917                stack.append(expression.right)
2918                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2919                    for comment in expression.comments:
2920                        if comment:
2921                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2922                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2923            return op
2924
2925        stack = [expression]
2926        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2927        ops = set()
2928
2929        while stack:
2930            node = stack.pop()
2931            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2932                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2933            else:
2934                sql = self.sql(node)
2935                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2936                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2937                else:
2938                    sqls.append(sql)
2939
2940        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2941        return sep.join(sqls)
2942
2943    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2944        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2945
2946    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2947        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2948
2949    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2950        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2951
2952    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2953        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2954
2955    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2956        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2957
2958    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2959        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2960
2961    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2962        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2963        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2964        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2965        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2966        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2967        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2968        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2969
2970    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2971        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2972        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2973
2974    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2975        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2976
2977    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2978        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2979            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2980        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2981
2982    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2983        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2984
2985    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2986        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2987        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2988        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2989        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2990        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2991        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2992
2993    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2994        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2995        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2996        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2997        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2998        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
2999        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3000        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3001        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3002        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3003
3004    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3005        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3006        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3007        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3008        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3009
3010        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3011            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3012
3013        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3014
3015    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3016        return "BEGIN"
3017
3018    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3019        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3020        if chain is not None:
3021            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3022
3023        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3024
3025    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3026        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3027        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3028        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3029
3030    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3031        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3032
3033        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3034        if dtype:
3035            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3036            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3037            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3038            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3039            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3040
3041        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3042        if default:
3043            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3044
3045        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3046        if comment:
3047            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3048
3049        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3050        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3051
3052        if not drop and not allow_null:
3053            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3054
3055        if allow_null is not None:
3056            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3057            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3058
3059        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3060
3061    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3062        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3063        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3064            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3065        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3066
3067    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3068        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3069        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3070        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3071        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3072        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3073
3074    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3075        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3076            # Remove db from tables
3077            expression = expression.transform(
3078                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3079            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3080        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3081        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3082
3083    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3084        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3085        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3086        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3087        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3088
3089    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3090        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3091        return f"SET {exprs}"
3092
3093    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3094        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3095
3096        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3097            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3098        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3099            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3100        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3101            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3102        else:
3103            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3104
3105        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3106        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3107        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3108        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3109        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3110        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3111        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
3112
3113    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3114        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3115            return self.expressions(
3116                expression,
3117                key="actions",
3118                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3119            )
3120        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3121
3122    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3123        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3124        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3125        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3126
3127    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3128        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3129
3130    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3131        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3132
3133        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3134            case = exp.case()
3135            for arg in expression.expressions:
3136                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3137            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3138
3139        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3140
3141        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3142        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3143        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3144
3145    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3146        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3147
3148    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3149        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3150
3151    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3152        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3153        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3154        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3155        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3156
3157    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3158        return self.sql(
3159            exp.Cast(
3160                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3161                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3162            )
3163        )
3164
3165    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3166        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3167            return self.func(
3168                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3169            )
3170        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3171
3172    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3173        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3174
3175        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3176            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3177
3178        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3179            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3180                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3181
3182        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3183            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3184                return self.sql(
3185                    exp.cast(
3186                        l / r,
3187                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3188                    )
3189                )
3190
3191        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3192
3193    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3194        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3195
3196    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3197        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3198
3199    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3200        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3201
3202    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3203        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3204
3205    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3206        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3207
3208    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3209        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3210
3211    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3212        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3213
3214    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3215        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3216
3217    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3218        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3219
3220    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3221        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3222
3223    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3224        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3225
3226    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3227        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3228            return self.sql(
3229                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3230            )
3231        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3232
3233    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3234        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3235
3236    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3237        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3238
3239    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3240        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3241
3242    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3243        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3244
3245    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3246        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3247
3248    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3249        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3250
3251    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3252        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3253
3254    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3255        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3256
3257    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3258        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3259
3260    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3261        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3262
3263    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3264        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3265
3266    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3267        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3268
3269    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3270        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3271
3272    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3273        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3274            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3275            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3276
3277        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3278
3279    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3280        this = expression.this
3281        expr = expression.expression
3282
3283        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3284            this, expr = expr, this
3285        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3286            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3287                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3288
3289            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3290
3291        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3292
3293    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3294        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3295        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3296        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3297        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3298        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3299
3300    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3301        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3302        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3303
3304    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3305        args = []
3306
3307        for key in expression.arg_types:
3308            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3309
3310            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3311                for value in arg_value:
3312                    args.append(value)
3313            elif arg_value is not None:
3314                args.append(arg_value)
3315
3316        if self.normalize_functions:
3317            name = expression.sql_name()
3318        else:
3319            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3320
3321        return self.func(name, *args)
3322
3323    def func(
3324        self,
3325        name: str,
3326        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3327        prefix: str = "(",
3328        suffix: str = ")",
3329    ) -> str:
3330        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3331
3332    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3333        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3334        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3335            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3336        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3337
3338    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3339        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3340
3341    def format_time(
3342        self,
3343        expression: exp.Expression,
3344        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3345        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3346    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3347        return format_time(
3348            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3349            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3350            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3351        )
3352
3353    def expressions(
3354        self,
3355        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3356        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3357        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3358        flat: bool = False,
3359        indent: bool = True,
3360        skip_first: bool = False,
3361        skip_last: bool = False,
3362        sep: str = ", ",
3363        prefix: str = "",
3364        dynamic: bool = False,
3365        new_line: bool = False,
3366    ) -> str:
3367        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3368
3369        if not expressions:
3370            return ""
3371
3372        if flat:
3373            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3374
3375        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3376
3377        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3378        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
3379            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3380
3381        result_sqls = []
3382        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3383            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3384            if not sql:
3385                continue
3386
3387            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3388
3389            if self.pretty:
3390                if self.leading_comma:
3391                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3392                else:
3393                    result_sqls.append(
3394                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3395                    )
3396            else:
3397                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3398
3399        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3400            if new_line:
3401                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3402                result_sqls.append("")
3403            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
3404        else:
3405            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3406        return (
3407            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3408            if indent
3409            else result_sql
3410        )
3411
3412    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3413        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3414        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3415        if flat:
3416            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3417        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3418
3419    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3420        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3421        if not property_name:
3422            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3423        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3424
3425    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3426        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3427
3428    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3429        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3430
3431    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3432        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3433        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3434        expressions = (
3435            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3436        )
3437        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3438
3439    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3440        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3441        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3442        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3443
3444    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3445        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3446
3447    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3448        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3449        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3450        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3451        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3452
3453        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3454        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3455            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3456            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3457            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3458            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3459        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3460            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3461                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3462            else:
3463                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3464        else:
3465            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3466        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3467
3468    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3469        table = expression.this
3470        table_alias = ""
3471
3472        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3473        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3474            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3475            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3476
3477        this = self.sql(table)
3478        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3479        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3480        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3481        sep = self.sep()
3482
3483        return self.prepend_ctes(
3484            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3485        )
3486
3487    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3488        if expression.args.get("format"):
3489            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3490
3491        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3492
3493    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3494        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3495            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3496            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3497
3498        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3499        if not fmt:
3500            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3501            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3502
3503        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3504
3505    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3506        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3507        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3508        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3509        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3510        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3511
3512    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3513        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3514        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3515        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3516        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3517
3518    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3519        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3520
3521    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3522        return ""
3523
3524    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3525        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3526        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3527        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3528        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3529        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3530
3531    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3532        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3533        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3534
3535        if having:
3536            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3537
3538        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3539
3540    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3541        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3542        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3543        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3544        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3545        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3546        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3547        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3548        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3549        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3550        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3551        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3552        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3553        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3554
3555    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3556        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3557        if key_block_size:
3558            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3559
3560        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3561        if using:
3562            return f"USING {using}"
3563
3564        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3565        if parser:
3566            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3567
3568        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3569        if comment:
3570            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3571
3572        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3573        if visible is not None:
3574            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3575
3576        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3577        if engine_attr:
3578            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3579
3580        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3581        if secondary_engine_attr:
3582            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3583
3584        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3585        return ""
3586
3587    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3588        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3589        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3590
3591    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3592        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3593        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3594        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3595        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3596        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3597        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3598        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3599        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3600        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3601        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3602        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3603
3604    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3605        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3606            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3607
3608        case = exp.Case().when(
3609            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3610            expression.args["true"],
3611            copy=False,
3612        )
3613        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3614        if else_cond:
3615            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3616
3617        return self.sql(case)
3618
3619    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3620        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3621        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3622        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3623        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3624        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3625        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3626
3627    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3628        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3629
3630    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3631        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3632
3633    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3634        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3635        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3636        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3637        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3638        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3639        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3640
3641    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3642        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3643        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3644        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3645
3646    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3647        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3648        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3649        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3650
3651    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3652        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3653
3654    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3655        arg = expression.this
3656        if not arg.type:
3657            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3658
3659            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3660
3661        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3662            return self.sql(arg)
3663
3664        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3665        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3666
3667    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3668        this = expression.this
3669        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3670            return self.sql(this)
3671
3672        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3673
3674    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3675        this = expression.this
3676        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3677            return self.sql(this)
3678
3679        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3680
3681    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3682        this = expression.this
3683        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3684
3685        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3686            return self.sql(
3687                exp.cast(
3688                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3689                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3690                )
3691            )
3692
3693        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3694            return self.sql(this)
3695
3696        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3697
3698    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3699        return self.sql(
3700            exp.func(
3701                "DATEDIFF",
3702                expression.this,
3703                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3704                "day",
3705            )
3706        )
3707
3708    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3709        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3710            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3711
3712        unit = expression.text("unit")
3713        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3714            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3715
3716        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3717
3718    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3719        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3720
3721        return self.func(
3722            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3723        )
3724
3725    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3726        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3727            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3728            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3729            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3730            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3731
3732        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3733
3734        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3735        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3736            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3737
3738        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3739
3740    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3741        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3742        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3743
3744    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3745        expression.set(
3746            "expressions",
3747            [
3748                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3749                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3750                else e
3751                for e in expression.expressions
3752            ],
3753        )
3754
3755        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3756
3757    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3758        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3759        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3760
3761        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3762
3763    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3764        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3765        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3766
3767        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3768
3769        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3770        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3771
3772        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3773        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3774
3775        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3776        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3777
3778        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3779        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3780
3781        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3782
3783    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3784    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3785    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3786        to = expression.this
3787        value = expression.expression
3788        style = expression.args.get("style")
3789        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3790        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3791
3792        if not to or not value:
3793            return ""
3794
3795        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3796        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3797            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3798
3799        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3800        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3801
3802        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3803        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3804            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3805
3806            style_value = style.name
3807            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3808            if not converted_style:
3809                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3810
3811            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3812
3813            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3814                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3815            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3816                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3817            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3818                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3819            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3820                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3821
3822        if not transformed:
3823            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3824
3825        return self.sql(transformed)
3826
3827    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3828        this = expression.this
3829        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3830            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3831            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3832
3833        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3834            return f".{this}"
3835
3836        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3837        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3838
3839    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3840        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3841        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3842
3843    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3844        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3845            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3846
3847            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3848
3849        return expression
3850
3851    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3852        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3853            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3854            mods = sorted(
3855                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3856                key=lambda x: 0
3857                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3858                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3859            )
3860
3861            if mods:
3862                mod = mods[0]
3863                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3864                this.meta["inline"] = True
3865                mod.this.replace(this)
3866                return self.sql(expression.this)
3867
3868            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3869
3870            if agg_func:
3871                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3872
3873        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3874
3875    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3876        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3877        if self.pretty:
3878            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3879        return string
3880
3881    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3882        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3883
3884        if expression.expressions:
3885            upper = option.upper()
3886
3887            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3888            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3889
3890            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3891            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3892            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3893            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3894
3895        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3896
3897        if not value:
3898            return option
3899
3900        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3901
3902        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
3903
3904    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3905        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3906        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3907            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3908            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3909            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3910        else:
3911            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3912            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3913            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3914
3915        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3916        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3917
3918        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3919        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3920
3921        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3922        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3923
3924        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3925        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3926
3927        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
3928
3929    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3930        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3931        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3932
3933        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3934        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3935        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3936        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3937
3938        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3939        params = self.expressions(
3940            expression,
3941            key="params",
3942            sep=sep,
3943            new_line=True,
3944            skip_last=True,
3945            skip_first=True,
3946            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
3947        )
3948
3949        if params:
3950            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
3951                params = f" WITH ({params})"
3952            elif not self.pretty:
3953                params = f" {params}"
3954
3955        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
3956
3957    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
3958        return ""
3959
3960    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
3961        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
3962        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
3963        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
3964        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
3965        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
3966
3967        if filter_col or retention_period:
3968            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
3969
3970        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
3971
3972    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
3973        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
3974    ) -> str:
3975        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3976        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3977        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3978        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
3979
3980    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
3981        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3982        this = f"TABLE {this}"
3983        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
3984
3985    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
3986        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
3987
3988    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
3989        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3990        expr = expression.expression
3991
3992        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
3993            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
3994            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
3995        else:
3996            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3997
3998        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)
logger = <Logger sqlglot (WARNING)>
ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE = re.compile('\\\\(\\d+)')
class Generator:
  37class Generator(metaclass=_Generator):
  38    """
  39    Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.
  40
  41    Args:
  42        pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string.
  43            Default: False.
  44        identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are:
  45            False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect.
  46            True or 'always': Always quote.
  47            'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  48        normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase.
  49            Default: False.
  50        pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of
  51            a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level.
  52            Default: 2.
  53        indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the
  54            indentation of subqueries and filters under a `WHERE` clause.
  55            Default: 2.
  56        normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are:
  57            "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase.
  58            "lower": Convert names to lowercase.
  59            False: Disables function name normalization.
  60        unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions.
  61            Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  62        max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError.
  63            This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE.
  64            Default: 3
  65        leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions.
  66            This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode.
  67            Default: False
  68        max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode.
  69            The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true
  70            line length.
  71            Default: 80
  72        comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code.
  73            Default: True
  74    """
  75
  76    TRANSFORMS: t.Dict[t.Type[exp.Expression], t.Callable[..., str]] = {
  77        **JSON_PATH_PART_TRANSFORMS,
  78        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: lambda self,
  79        e: f"ALLOWED_VALUES {self.expressions(e, flat=True)}",
  80        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: lambda self, e: f"AUTO REFRESH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  81        exp.BackupProperty: lambda self, e: f"BACKUP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  82        exp.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint: lambda _,
  83        e: f"{'NOT ' if e.args.get('not_') else ''}CASESPECIFIC",
  84        exp.CharacterSetColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"CHARACTER SET {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  85        exp.CharacterSetProperty: lambda self,
  86        e: f"{'DEFAULT ' if e.args.get('default') else ''}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  87        exp.ClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  88        e: f"CLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
  89        exp.CollateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COLLATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  90        exp.CommentColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"COMMENT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  91        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: lambda *_: "COPY GRANTS",
  92        exp.DateFormatColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"FORMAT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  93        exp.DefaultColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"DEFAULT {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  94        exp.DynamicProperty: lambda *_: "DYNAMIC",
  95        exp.EncodeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ENCODE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
  96        exp.EphemeralColumnConstraint: lambda self,
  97        e: f"EPHEMERAL{(' ' + self.sql(e, 'this')) if e.this else ''}",
  98        exp.ExcludeColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"EXCLUDE {self.sql(e, 'this').lstrip()}",
  99        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 100        exp.ExternalProperty: lambda *_: "EXTERNAL",
 101        exp.GlobalProperty: lambda *_: "GLOBAL",
 102        exp.HeapProperty: lambda *_: "HEAP",
 103        exp.IcebergProperty: lambda *_: "ICEBERG",
 104        exp.InheritsProperty: lambda self, e: f"INHERITS ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 105        exp.InlineLengthColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"INLINE LENGTH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 106        exp.InputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"INPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 107        exp.IntervalSpan: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} TO {self.sql(e, 'expression')}",
 108        exp.JSONExtract: lambda self, e: self.func(
 109            "JSON_EXTRACT", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 110        ),
 111        exp.JSONExtractScalar: lambda self, e: self.func(
 112            "JSON_EXTRACT_SCALAR", e.this, e.expression, *e.expressions
 113        ),
 114        exp.LanguageProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 115        exp.LocationProperty: lambda self, e: self.naked_property(e),
 116        exp.LogProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'NO ' if e.args.get('no') else ''}LOG",
 117        exp.MaterializedProperty: lambda *_: "MATERIALIZED",
 118        exp.NonClusteredColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 119        e: f"NONCLUSTERED ({self.expressions(e, 'this', indent=False)})",
 120        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: lambda *_: "NO PRIMARY INDEX",
 121        exp.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "NOT FOR REPLICATION",
 122        exp.OnCommitProperty: lambda _,
 123        e: f"ON COMMIT {'DELETE' if e.args.get('delete') else 'PRESERVE'} ROWS",
 124        exp.OnProperty: lambda self, e: f"ON {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 125        exp.OnUpdateColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"ON UPDATE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 126        exp.OutputModelProperty: lambda self, e: f"OUTPUT{self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 127        exp.PathColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"PATH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 128        exp.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint: lambda self,
 129        e: f"PROJECTION POLICY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 130        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: lambda self,
 131        e: f"REMOTE WITH CONNECTION {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 132        exp.ReturnsProperty: lambda self, e: (
 133            "RETURNS NULL ON NULL INPUT" if e.args.get("null") else self.naked_property(e)
 134        ),
 135        exp.SampleProperty: lambda self, e: f"SAMPLE BY {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 136        exp.SecureProperty: lambda *_: "SECURE",
 137        exp.SetConfigProperty: lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "this"),
 138        exp.SetProperty: lambda _, e: f"{'MULTI' if e.args.get('multi') else ''}SET",
 139        exp.SettingsProperty: lambda self, e: f"SETTINGS{self.seg('')}{(self.expressions(e))}",
 140        exp.SharingProperty: lambda self, e: f"SHARING={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 141        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 142        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: lambda _,
 143        e: f"SQL SECURITY {'DEFINER' if e.args.get('definer') else 'INVOKER'}",
 144        exp.StabilityProperty: lambda _, e: e.name,
 145        exp.StrictProperty: lambda *_: "STRICT",
 146        exp.TemporaryProperty: lambda *_: "TEMPORARY",
 147        exp.TagColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TAG ({self.expressions(e, flat=True)})",
 148        exp.TitleColumnConstraint: lambda self, e: f"TITLE {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 149        exp.Timestamp: lambda self, e: self.func("TIMESTAMP", e.this, e.args.get("zone")),
 150        exp.ToMap: lambda self, e: f"MAP {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 151        exp.ToTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"TO {self.sql(e.this)}",
 152        exp.TransformModelProperty: lambda self, e: self.func("TRANSFORM", *e.expressions),
 153        exp.TransientProperty: lambda *_: "TRANSIENT",
 154        exp.UppercaseColumnConstraint: lambda *_: "UPPERCASE",
 155        exp.UnloggedProperty: lambda *_: "UNLOGGED",
 156        exp.VarMap: lambda self, e: self.func("MAP", e.args["keys"], e.args["values"]),
 157        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH {self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 158        exp.VolatileProperty: lambda *_: "VOLATILE",
 159        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: lambda self, e: f"WITH JOURNAL TABLE={self.sql(e, 'this')}",
 160        exp.WithOperator: lambda self, e: f"{self.sql(e, 'this')} WITH {self.sql(e, 'op')}",
 161    }
 162
 163    # Whether null ordering is supported in order by
 164    # True: Full Support, None: No support, False: No support in window specifications
 165    NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: t.Optional[bool] = True
 166
 167    # Whether ignore nulls is inside the agg or outside.
 168    # FIRST(x IGNORE NULLS) OVER vs FIRST (x) IGNORE NULLS OVER
 169    IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
 170
 171    # Whether locking reads (i.e. SELECT ... FOR UPDATE/SHARE) are supported
 172    LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
 173
 174    # Always do <set op> distinct or <set op> all
 175    EXPLICIT_SET_OP = False
 176
 177    # Wrap derived values in parens, usually standard but spark doesn't support it
 178    WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
 179
 180    # Whether create function uses an AS before the RETURN
 181    CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
 182
 183    # Whether MERGE ... WHEN MATCHED BY SOURCE is allowed
 184    MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
 185
 186    # Whether the INTERVAL expression works only with values like '1 day'
 187    SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
 188
 189    # Whether the plural form of date parts like day (i.e. "days") is supported in INTERVALs
 190    INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
 191
 192    # Whether limit and fetch are supported (possible values: "ALL", "LIMIT", "FETCH")
 193    LIMIT_FETCH = "ALL"
 194
 195    # Whether limit and fetch allows expresions or just limits
 196    LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
 197
 198    # Whether a table is allowed to be renamed with a db
 199    RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
 200
 201    # The separator for grouping sets and rollups
 202    GROUPINGS_SEP = ","
 203
 204    # The string used for creating an index on a table
 205    INDEX_ON = "ON"
 206
 207    # Whether join hints should be generated
 208    JOIN_HINTS = True
 209
 210    # Whether table hints should be generated
 211    TABLE_HINTS = True
 212
 213    # Whether query hints should be generated
 214    QUERY_HINTS = True
 215
 216    # What kind of separator to use for query hints
 217    QUERY_HINT_SEP = ", "
 218
 219    # Whether comparing against booleans (e.g. x IS TRUE) is supported
 220    IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
 221
 222    # Whether to include the "SET" keyword in the "INSERT ... ON DUPLICATE KEY UPDATE" statement
 223    DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
 224
 225    # Whether to generate the limit as TOP <value> instead of LIMIT <value>
 226    LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
 227
 228    # Whether to generate INSERT INTO ... RETURNING or INSERT INTO RETURNING ...
 229    RETURNING_END = True
 230
 231    # Whether to generate an unquoted value for EXTRACT's date part argument
 232    EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
 233
 234    # Whether TIMETZ / TIMESTAMPTZ will be generated using the "WITH TIME ZONE" syntax
 235    TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
 236
 237    # Whether the NVL2 function is supported
 238    NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
 239
 240    # https://cloud.google.com/bigquery/docs/reference/standard-sql/query-syntax
 241    SELECT_KINDS: t.Tuple[str, ...] = ("STRUCT", "VALUE")
 242
 243    # Whether VALUES statements can be used as derived tables.
 244    # MySQL 5 and Redshift do not allow this, so when False, it will convert
 245    # SELECT * VALUES into SELECT UNION
 246    VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
 247
 248    # Whether the word COLUMN is included when adding a column with ALTER TABLE
 249    ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
 250
 251    # UNNEST WITH ORDINALITY (presto) instead of UNNEST WITH OFFSET (bigquery)
 252    UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
 253
 254    # Whether FILTER (WHERE cond) can be used for conditional aggregation
 255    AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
 256
 257    # Whether JOIN sides (LEFT, RIGHT) are supported in conjunction with SEMI/ANTI join kinds
 258    SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
 259
 260    # Whether to include the type of a computed column in the CREATE DDL
 261    COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
 262
 263    # Whether CREATE TABLE .. COPY .. is supported. False means we'll generate CLONE instead of COPY
 264    SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
 265
 266    # Whether parentheses are required around the table sample's expression
 267    TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
 268
 269    # Whether a table sample clause's size needs to be followed by the ROWS keyword
 270    TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
 271
 272    # The keyword(s) to use when generating a sample clause
 273    TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = "TABLESAMPLE"
 274
 275    # Whether the TABLESAMPLE clause supports a method name, like BERNOULLI
 276    TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
 277
 278    # The keyword to use when specifying the seed of a sample clause
 279    TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = "SEED"
 280
 281    # Whether COLLATE is a function instead of a binary operator
 282    COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
 283
 284    # Whether data types support additional specifiers like e.g. CHAR or BYTE (oracle)
 285    DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
 286
 287    # Whether conditions require booleans WHERE x = 0 vs WHERE x
 288    ENSURE_BOOLS = False
 289
 290    # Whether the "RECURSIVE" keyword is required when defining recursive CTEs
 291    CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
 292
 293    # Whether CONCAT requires >1 arguments
 294    SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
 295
 296    # Whether LAST_DAY function supports a date part argument
 297    LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
 298
 299    # Whether named columns are allowed in table aliases
 300    SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
 301
 302    # Whether UNPIVOT aliases are Identifiers (False means they're Literals)
 303    UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
 304
 305    # What delimiter to use for separating JSON key/value pairs
 306    JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ":"
 307
 308    # INSERT OVERWRITE TABLE x override
 309    INSERT_OVERWRITE = " OVERWRITE TABLE"
 310
 311    # Whether the SELECT .. INTO syntax is used instead of CTAS
 312    SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
 313
 314    # Whether UNLOGGED tables can be created
 315    SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
 316
 317    # Whether the CREATE TABLE LIKE statement is supported
 318    SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
 319
 320    # Whether the LikeProperty needs to be specified inside of the schema clause
 321    LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
 322
 323    # Whether DISTINCT can be followed by multiple args in an AggFunc. If not, it will be
 324    # transpiled into a series of CASE-WHEN-ELSE, ultimately using a tuple conseisting of the args
 325    MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
 326
 327    # Whether the JSON extraction operators expect a value of type JSON
 328    JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
 329
 330    # Whether bracketed keys like ["foo"] are supported in JSON paths
 331    JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
 332
 333    # Whether to escape keys using single quotes in JSON paths
 334    JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
 335
 336    # The JSONPathPart expressions supported by this dialect
 337    SUPPORTED_JSON_PATH_PARTS = ALL_JSON_PATH_PARTS.copy()
 338
 339    # Whether any(f(x) for x in array) can be implemented by this dialect
 340    CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
 341
 342    # Whether the function TO_NUMBER is supported
 343    SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
 344
 345    # Whether or not set op modifiers apply to the outer set op or select.
 346    # SELECT * FROM x UNION SELECT * FROM y LIMIT 1
 347    # True means limit 1 happens after the set op, False means it it happens on y.
 348    SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
 349
 350    # Whether parameters from COPY statement are wrapped in parentheses
 351    COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
 352
 353    # Whether values of params are set with "=" token or empty space
 354    COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
 355
 356    # Whether COPY statement has INTO keyword
 357    COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
 358
 359    # Whether the conditional TRY(expression) function is supported
 360    TRY_SUPPORTED = True
 361
 362    # Whether the UESCAPE syntax in unicode strings is supported
 363    SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
 364
 365    # The keyword to use when generating a star projection with excluded columns
 366    STAR_EXCEPT = "EXCEPT"
 367
 368    # The HEX function name
 369    HEX_FUNC = "HEX"
 370
 371    # The keywords to use when prefixing & separating WITH based properties
 372    WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = "WITH"
 373
 374    # Whether to quote the generated expression of exp.JsonPath
 375    QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
 376
 377    TYPE_MAPPING = {
 378        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR: "CHAR",
 379        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR: "VARCHAR",
 380        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMTEXT: "TEXT",
 381        exp.DataType.Type.LONGTEXT: "TEXT",
 382        exp.DataType.Type.TINYTEXT: "TEXT",
 383        exp.DataType.Type.MEDIUMBLOB: "BLOB",
 384        exp.DataType.Type.LONGBLOB: "BLOB",
 385        exp.DataType.Type.TINYBLOB: "BLOB",
 386        exp.DataType.Type.INET: "INET",
 387        exp.DataType.Type.ROWVERSION: "VARBINARY",
 388    }
 389
 390    TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {
 391        "MICROSECONDS": "MICROSECOND",
 392        "SECONDS": "SECOND",
 393        "MINUTES": "MINUTE",
 394        "HOURS": "HOUR",
 395        "DAYS": "DAY",
 396        "WEEKS": "WEEK",
 397        "MONTHS": "MONTH",
 398        "QUARTERS": "QUARTER",
 399        "YEARS": "YEAR",
 400    }
 401
 402    AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {
 403        "cluster": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "cluster"),
 404        "distribute": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "distribute"),
 405        "qualify": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "qualify"),
 406        "sort": lambda self, e: self.sql(e, "sort"),
 407        "windows": lambda self, e: (
 408            self.seg("WINDOW ") + self.expressions(e, key="windows", flat=True)
 409            if e.args.get("windows")
 410            else ""
 411        ),
 412    }
 413
 414    TOKEN_MAPPING: t.Dict[TokenType, str] = {}
 415
 416    STRUCT_DELIMITER = ("<", ">")
 417
 418    PARAMETER_TOKEN = "@"
 419    NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ":"
 420
 421    PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {
 422        exp.AllowedValuesProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 423        exp.AlgorithmProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 424        exp.AutoIncrementProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 425        exp.AutoRefreshProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 426        exp.BackupProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 427        exp.BlockCompressionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 428        exp.CharacterSetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 429        exp.ChecksumProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 430        exp.CollateProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 431        exp.CopyGrantsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 432        exp.Cluster: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 433        exp.ClusteredByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 434        exp.DataBlocksizeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 435        exp.DataDeletionProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 436        exp.DefinerProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 437        exp.DictRange: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 438        exp.DictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 439        exp.DynamicProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 440        exp.DistKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 441        exp.DistStyleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 442        exp.EngineProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 443        exp.ExecuteAsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 444        exp.ExternalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 445        exp.FallbackProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 446        exp.FileFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 447        exp.FreespaceProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 448        exp.GlobalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 449        exp.HeapProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 450        exp.InheritsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 451        exp.IcebergProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 452        exp.InputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 453        exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 454        exp.JournalProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 455        exp.LanguageProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 456        exp.LikeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 457        exp.LocationProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 458        exp.LockProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 459        exp.LockingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS,
 460        exp.LogProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 461        exp.MaterializedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 462        exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 463        exp.NoPrimaryIndexProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 464        exp.OnProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 465        exp.OnCommitProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 466        exp.Order: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 467        exp.OutputModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 468        exp.PartitionedByProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 469        exp.PartitionedOfProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 470        exp.PrimaryKey: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 471        exp.Property: exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH,
 472        exp.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 473        exp.ReturnsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 474        exp.RowFormatProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 475        exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 476        exp.RowFormatSerdeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 477        exp.SampleProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 478        exp.SchemaCommentProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 479        exp.SecureProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 480        exp.SerdeProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 481        exp.Set: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 482        exp.SettingsProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 483        exp.SetProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 484        exp.SetConfigProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 485        exp.SharingProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 486        exp.SequenceProperties: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 487        exp.SortKeyProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 488        exp.SqlReadWriteProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 489        exp.SqlSecurityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 490        exp.StabilityProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 491        exp.StrictProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 492        exp.TemporaryProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 493        exp.ToTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 494        exp.TransientProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 495        exp.TransformModelProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 496        exp.MergeTreeTTL: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 497        exp.UnloggedProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 498        exp.ViewAttributeProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 499        exp.VolatileProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE,
 500        exp.WithDataProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION,
 501        exp.WithJournalTableProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_NAME,
 502        exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty: exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA,
 503    }
 504
 505    # Keywords that can't be used as unquoted identifier names
 506    RESERVED_KEYWORDS: t.Set[str] = set()
 507
 508    # Expressions whose comments are separated from them for better formatting
 509    WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 510        exp.Create,
 511        exp.Delete,
 512        exp.Drop,
 513        exp.From,
 514        exp.Insert,
 515        exp.Join,
 516        exp.Select,
 517        exp.SetOperation,
 518        exp.Update,
 519        exp.Where,
 520        exp.With,
 521    )
 522
 523    # Expressions that should not have their comments generated in maybe_comment
 524    EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 525        exp.Binary,
 526        exp.SetOperation,
 527    )
 528
 529    # Expressions that can remain unwrapped when appearing in the context of an INTERVAL
 530    UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: t.Tuple[t.Type[exp.Expression], ...] = (
 531        exp.Column,
 532        exp.Literal,
 533        exp.Neg,
 534        exp.Paren,
 535    )
 536
 537    PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {
 538        exp.DataType.Type.NVARCHAR,
 539        exp.DataType.Type.VARCHAR,
 540        exp.DataType.Type.CHAR,
 541        exp.DataType.Type.NCHAR,
 542    }
 543
 544    # Expressions that need to have all CTEs under them bubbled up to them
 545    EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: t.Set[t.Type[exp.Expression]] = set()
 546
 547    SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = "__SQLGLOT__LB__"
 548
 549    __slots__ = (
 550        "pretty",
 551        "identify",
 552        "normalize",
 553        "pad",
 554        "_indent",
 555        "normalize_functions",
 556        "unsupported_level",
 557        "max_unsupported",
 558        "leading_comma",
 559        "max_text_width",
 560        "comments",
 561        "dialect",
 562        "unsupported_messages",
 563        "_escaped_quote_end",
 564        "_escaped_identifier_end",
 565        "_next_name",
 566    )
 567
 568    def __init__(
 569        self,
 570        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
 571        identify: str | bool = False,
 572        normalize: bool = False,
 573        pad: int = 2,
 574        indent: int = 2,
 575        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
 576        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
 577        max_unsupported: int = 3,
 578        leading_comma: bool = False,
 579        max_text_width: int = 80,
 580        comments: bool = True,
 581        dialect: DialectType = None,
 582    ):
 583        import sqlglot
 584        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
 585
 586        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
 587        self.identify = identify
 588        self.normalize = normalize
 589        self.pad = pad
 590        self._indent = indent
 591        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
 592        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
 593        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
 594        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
 595        self.comments = comments
 596        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
 597
 598        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
 599        self.normalize_functions = (
 600            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
 601        )
 602
 603        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
 604        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
 605            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
 606        )
 607        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
 608            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
 609        )
 610
 611        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
 612
 613    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
 614        """
 615        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
 616
 617        Args:
 618            expression: The syntax tree.
 619            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
 620                it is safer to copy.
 621
 622        Returns:
 623            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
 624        """
 625        if copy:
 626            expression = expression.copy()
 627
 628        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
 629
 630        self.unsupported_messages = []
 631        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
 632
 633        if self.pretty:
 634            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
 635
 636        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
 637            return sql
 638
 639        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
 640            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
 641                logger.warning(msg)
 642        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
 643            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
 644
 645        return sql
 646
 647    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
 648        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
 649        if (
 650            not expression.parent
 651            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
 652            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
 653        ):
 654            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
 655
 656            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
 657
 658        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
 659            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
 660
 661            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
 662
 663        return expression
 664
 665    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
 666        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
 667            raise UnsupportedError(message)
 668        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
 669
 670    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 671        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
 672
 673    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 674        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
 675
 676    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
 677        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
 678        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
 679        return comment
 680
 681    def maybe_comment(
 682        self,
 683        sql: str,
 684        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
 685        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
 686        separated: bool = False,
 687    ) -> str:
 688        comments = (
 689            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
 690            if self.comments
 691            else None
 692        )
 693
 694        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
 695            return sql
 696
 697        comments_sql = " ".join(
 698            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
 699        )
 700
 701        if not comments_sql:
 702            return sql
 703
 704        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
 705
 706        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
 707            return (
 708                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
 709                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
 710                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
 711            )
 712
 713        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
 714
 715    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
 716        this_sql = (
 717            self.sql(expression)
 718            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
 719            else self.sql(expression, "this")
 720        )
 721        if not this_sql:
 722            return "()"
 723
 724        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
 725        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
 726
 727    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
 728        original = self.identify
 729        self.identify = False
 730        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
 731        self.identify = original
 732        return result
 733
 734    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
 735        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
 736            return name.upper()
 737        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
 738            return name.lower()
 739        return name
 740
 741    def indent(
 742        self,
 743        sql: str,
 744        level: int = 0,
 745        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
 746        skip_first: bool = False,
 747        skip_last: bool = False,
 748    ) -> str:
 749        if not self.pretty or not sql:
 750            return sql
 751
 752        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
 753        lines = sql.split("\n")
 754
 755        return "\n".join(
 756            (
 757                line
 758                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
 759                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
 760            )
 761            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
 762        )
 763
 764    def sql(
 765        self,
 766        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
 767        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
 768        comment: bool = True,
 769    ) -> str:
 770        if not expression:
 771            return ""
 772
 773        if isinstance(expression, str):
 774            return expression
 775
 776        if key:
 777            value = expression.args.get(key)
 778            if value:
 779                return self.sql(value)
 780            return ""
 781
 782        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
 783
 784        if callable(transform):
 785            sql = transform(self, expression)
 786        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
 787            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
 788
 789            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
 790                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
 791            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
 792                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
 793            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
 794                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
 795            else:
 796                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
 797        else:
 798            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
 799
 800        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
 801
 802    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
 803        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 804        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 805        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
 806
 807    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
 808        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
 809        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
 810        options = expression.args.get("options")
 811        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
 812        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 813        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
 814        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
 815        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
 816
 817    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
 818        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
 819            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 820        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
 821        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 822
 823    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 824        return ".".join(
 825            self.sql(part)
 826            for part in (
 827                expression.args.get("catalog"),
 828                expression.args.get("db"),
 829                expression.args.get("table"),
 830                expression.args.get("this"),
 831            )
 832            if part
 833        )
 834
 835    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
 836        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
 837
 838        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
 839            join_mark = ""
 840            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
 841
 842        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
 843
 844    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
 845        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 846        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 847        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 848        return f"{position}{this}"
 849
 850    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
 851        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
 852        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 853        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
 854        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
 855        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
 856        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
 857        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
 858        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
 859
 860        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
 861            kind = ""
 862
 863        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
 864
 865    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
 866        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 867        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
 868        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
 869
 870    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
 871        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 872        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
 873            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
 874        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
 875            persisted = " PERSISTED"
 876        else:
 877            persisted = ""
 878        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
 879
 880    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
 881        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
 882
 883    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
 884        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
 885            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
 886        else:
 887            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 888
 889        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
 890
 891    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
 892        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
 893    ) -> str:
 894        this = ""
 895        if expression.this is not None:
 896            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
 897            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
 898
 899        start = expression.args.get("start")
 900        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
 901        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
 902        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
 903        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
 904        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
 905        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
 906        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
 907        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
 908        cycle_sql = ""
 909
 910        if cycle is not None:
 911            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
 912            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
 913
 914        sequence_opts = ""
 915        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
 916            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
 917            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
 918
 919        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 920        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
 921
 922        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
 923
 924    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
 925        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
 926    ) -> str:
 927        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
 928        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
 929        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
 930
 931    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
 932        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
 933    ) -> str:
 934        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
 935
 936    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
 937        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
 938
 939    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
 940        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
 941
 942    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
 943        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
 944        if desc is not None:
 945            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
 946        return "PRIMARY KEY"
 947
 948    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
 949        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
 950        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
 951        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
 952        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
 953        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
 954        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
 955        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
 956
 957    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
 958        return self.sql(expression, "this")
 959
 960    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 961        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 962        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 963        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 964
 965        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 966
 967        properties_sql = ""
 968        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 969            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 970        ):
 971            properties_sql = self.sql(
 972                exp.Properties(
 973                    expressions=[
 974                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 975                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 976                    ]
 977                )
 978            )
 979
 980            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
 981                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
 982            elif not self.pretty:
 983                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
 984                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
 985
 986        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 987        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 988
 989        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 990        if expression_sql:
 991            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 992
 993            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 994                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 995                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 996                        exp.Properties(
 997                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 998                        ),
 999                        wrapped=False,
1000                    )
1001                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1002                else:
1003                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
1004
1005        postindex_props_sql = ""
1006        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1007            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1008                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1009                wrapped=False,
1010                prefix=" ",
1011            )
1012
1013        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1014        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1015        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1016
1017        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1018        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1019
1020        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1021        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1022            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1023                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1024                sep=" ",
1025                prefix=" ",
1026                wrapped=False,
1027            )
1028
1029        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1030
1031        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1032        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1033            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1034                exp.Properties(
1035                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1036                ),
1037                sep=" ",
1038                prefix=" ",
1039                wrapped=False,
1040            )
1041
1042        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1043        no_schema_binding = (
1044            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1045        )
1046
1047        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1048        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1049
1050        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1051        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
1052
1053    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1054        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1055        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1056        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1057        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1058        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1059        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1060        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1061        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1062        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1063        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1064
1065        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1066        if cache is None:
1067            cache_str = ""
1068        elif cache is True:
1069            cache_str = " CACHE"
1070        else:
1071            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1072
1073        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1074        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1075
1076        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
1077
1078    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1079        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1080        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1081        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1082        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
1083
1084    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1085        style = expression.args.get("style")
1086        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1087        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1088
1089    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1090        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1091        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
1092
1093    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1094        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1095        if with_:
1096            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1097        return sql
1098
1099    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1100        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1101        recursive = (
1102            "RECURSIVE "
1103            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1104            else ""
1105        )
1106
1107        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
1108
1109    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1110        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1111
1112        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1113        if materialized is False:
1114            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1115        elif materialized:
1116            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1117
1118        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
1119
1120    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1121        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1122        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1123        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1124
1125        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1126            columns = ""
1127            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1128
1129        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1130            alias = self._next_name()
1131
1132        return f"{alias}{columns}"
1133
1134    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1135        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1136        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1137            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1138        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
1139
1140    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1141        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1142        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1143            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1144        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
1145
1146    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1147        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1148        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1149            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1150        return this
1151
1152    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1153        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1154        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1155
1156        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1157            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1158            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1159        else:
1160            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1161            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1162
1163        if escape:
1164            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1165            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1166        else:
1167            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1168            escape_sql = ""
1169
1170        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1171            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1172
1173        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
1174
1175    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1176        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1177        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
1178
1179    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1180        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1181        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1182        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1183        return f"{this}{specifier}"
1184
1185    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1186        type_value = expression.this
1187
1188        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1189            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1190        else:
1191            type_sql = (
1192                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1193                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1194                else type_value
1195            )
1196
1197        nested = ""
1198        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1199        values = ""
1200
1201        if interior:
1202            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1203                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1204                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1205                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1206                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1207                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1208            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1209                nested = f" {interior}"
1210            else:
1211                nested = f"({interior})"
1212
1213        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1214        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1215            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1216            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1217        ):
1218            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1219
1220        return type_sql
1221
1222    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1223        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1224        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1225        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1226        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
1227
1228    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1229        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1230        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1231        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1232        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1233        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1234        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1235        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1236        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1237        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1238        if self.RETURNING_END:
1239            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1240        else:
1241            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1242        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
1243
1244    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1245        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1246        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1247        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1248        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1249        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1250        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1251        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1252        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1253        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1254        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1255        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1256        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1257        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
1258
1259    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1260        return self.set_operations(expression)
1261
1262    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1263        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1264
1265    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1266        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1267        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1268        count = expression.args.get("count")
1269        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1270        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1271            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1272        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1273        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
1274
1275    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1276        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1277            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1278            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1279            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1280
1281        agg = expression.this
1282        agg_arg = agg.this
1283        cond = expression.expression.this
1284        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1285        return self.sql(agg)
1286
1287    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1288        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1289            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1290            return ""
1291
1292        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
1293
1294    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1295        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1296        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1297        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1298        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1299        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1300        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1301        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1302        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1303        if include:
1304            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1305        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1306        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1307        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1308        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1309        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1310        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1311
1312        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
1313
1314    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1315        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1316        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1317        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1318        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1319        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1320        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1321        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1322
1323        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1324
1325        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1326        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
1327
1328    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1329        text = expression.name
1330        lower = text.lower()
1331        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1332        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1333        if (
1334            expression.quoted
1335            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1336            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1337            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1338        ):
1339            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1340        return text
1341
1342    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1343        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1344        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1345            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1346
1347        return text
1348
1349    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1350        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1351        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1352            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1353        return text
1354
1355    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1356        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1357        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1358        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1359        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1360        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
1361
1362    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1363        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1364        return f"{prefix}{string}"
1365
1366    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1367        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1368
1369    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1370        root_properties = []
1371        with_properties = []
1372
1373        for p in expression.expressions:
1374            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1375            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1376                with_properties.append(p)
1377            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1378                root_properties.append(p)
1379
1380        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1381        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1382
1383        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1384            with_props = " " + with_props
1385
1386        return root_props + with_props
1387
1388    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1389        if properties.expressions:
1390            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1391        return ""
1392
1393    def properties(
1394        self,
1395        properties: exp.Properties,
1396        prefix: str = "",
1397        sep: str = ", ",
1398        suffix: str = "",
1399        wrapped: bool = True,
1400    ) -> str:
1401        if properties.expressions:
1402            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1403            if expressions:
1404                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1405                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1406        return ""
1407
1408    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1409        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
1410
1411    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1412        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1413        for p in properties.expressions:
1414            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1415            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1416                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1417            else:
1418                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1419
1420        return properties_locs
1421
1422    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1423        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1424            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1425        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
1426
1427    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1428        property_cls = expression.__class__
1429        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1430            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1431
1432        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1433        if not property_name:
1434            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1435
1436        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1437
1438    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1439        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1440            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1441            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1442
1443            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1444            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1445                like = f"({like})"
1446
1447            return like
1448
1449        if expression.expressions:
1450            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1451
1452        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1453        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
1454
1455    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1456        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1457        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1458        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
1459
1460    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1461        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1462        local = expression.args.get("local")
1463        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1464        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1465        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1466        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1467        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
1468
1469    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1470        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1471        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1472        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
1473
1474    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1475        if expression.args.get("default"):
1476            property = "DEFAULT"
1477        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1478            property = "ON"
1479        else:
1480            property = "OFF"
1481        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
1482
1483    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1484        if expression.args.get("no"):
1485            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1486        if expression.args.get("default"):
1487            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1488
1489        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1490        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
1491
1492    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1493        default = expression.args.get("default")
1494        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1495        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1496        if default or minimum or maximum:
1497            if default:
1498                prop = "DEFAULT"
1499            elif minimum:
1500                prop = "MINIMUM"
1501            else:
1502                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1503            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1504        units = expression.args.get("units")
1505        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1506        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
1507
1508    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1509        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1510        always = expression.args.get("always")
1511        default = expression.args.get("default")
1512        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1513        never = expression.args.get("never")
1514
1515        if autotemp is not None:
1516            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1517        elif always:
1518            prop = "ALWAYS"
1519        elif default:
1520            prop = "DEFAULT"
1521        elif manual:
1522            prop = "MANUAL"
1523        elif never:
1524            prop = "NEVER"
1525        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
1526
1527    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1528        no = expression.args.get("no")
1529        no = " NO" if no else ""
1530        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1531        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1532        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1533        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1534        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
1535
1536    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1537        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1538            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1539        if expression.this:
1540            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1541            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1542            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1543
1544        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1545        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1546        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
1547
1548    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1549        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1550
1551        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1552        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1553            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1554        else:
1555            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1556
1557        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
1558
1559    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1560        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1561        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1562        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1563        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1564        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1565        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1566        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
1567
1568    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1569        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1570        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1571        statistics_sql = ""
1572        if statistics is not None:
1573            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1574        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
1575
1576    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1577        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1578        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1579        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1580        data_consistency = (
1581            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1582        )
1583        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1584        retention_period = (
1585            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1586        )
1587
1588        if this:
1589            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1590        else:
1591            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1592
1593        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1594
1595        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
1596
1597    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1598        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1599        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1600
1601        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1602            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1603        else:
1604            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1605
1606        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1607        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1608        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1609        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1610        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1611        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1612        if is_function:
1613            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1614        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1615
1616        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1617        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1618        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1619        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1620        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1621        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1622        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1623        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1624
1625        if self.RETURNING_END:
1626            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1627        else:
1628            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1629
1630        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1631        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1632
1633    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1634        return self.set_operations(expression)
1635
1636    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1637        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
1638
1639    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1640        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1641
1642    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1643        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1644        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1645        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1646        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1647        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
1648
1649    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1650        return expression.name
1651
1652    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1653        return expression.name
1654
1655    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1656        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1657
1658        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1659        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1660
1661        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1662        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1663        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1664
1665        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1666        if expressions:
1667            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1668            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1669
1670        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
1671
1672    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1673        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
1674
1675    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1676        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1677        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1678        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1679        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1680        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1681        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1682        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1683        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1684        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1685        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1686        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1687        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1688        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
1689
1690    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1691        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1692
1693    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1694        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1695        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1696        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1697        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1698
1699    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1700        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1701        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1702        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1703        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
1704
1705    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1706        return ".".join(
1707            self.sql(part)
1708            for part in (
1709                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1710                expression.args.get("db"),
1711                expression.args.get("this"),
1712            )
1713            if part is not None
1714        )
1715
1716    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1717        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1718        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1719        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1720        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1721        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1722        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1723        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1724        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1725        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1726        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1727        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1728        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1729        joins = self.indent(
1730            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1731        )
1732        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1733
1734        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1735        if file_format:
1736            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1737            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1738            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1739
1740        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1741        if ordinality:
1742            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1743            alias = ""
1744
1745        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1746        if when:
1747            table = f"{table} {when}"
1748
1749        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
1750
1751    def tablesample_sql(
1752        self,
1753        expression: exp.TableSample,
1754        sep: str = " AS ",
1755        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1756    ) -> str:
1757        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1758            table = expression.this.copy()
1759            table.set("alias", None)
1760            this = self.sql(table)
1761            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1762        else:
1763            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1764            alias = ""
1765
1766        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1767        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1768        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1769        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1770        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1771        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1772        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1773        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1774        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1775
1776        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1777        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1778            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1779
1780        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1781        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1782            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1783
1784        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1785        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1786            expr = f"({expr})"
1787
1788        return (
1789            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1790        )
1791
1792    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1793        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1794
1795        if expression.this:
1796            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1797            if not expressions:
1798                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1799
1800            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1801            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1802            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1803            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1804            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1805
1806        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1807        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1808        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1809        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1810        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1811        if include_nulls is not None:
1812            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1813        else:
1814            nulls = ""
1815        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
1816
1817    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1818        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1819        kind = expression.text("kind")
1820        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1821        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
1822
1823    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1824        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
1825
1826    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1827        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1828        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1829        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1830        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1831        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1832        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1833        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1834        if self.RETURNING_END:
1835            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1836        else:
1837            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1838        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1839        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
1840
1841    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1842        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1843
1844        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1845        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1846            args = self.expressions(expression)
1847            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1848            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1849            values = (
1850                f"({values})"
1851                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1852                else values
1853            )
1854            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1855
1856        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1857        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1858        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1859
1860        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1861
1862        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1863            row = tup.expressions
1864
1865            if i == 0 and column_names:
1866                row = [
1867                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1868                ]
1869
1870            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1871
1872        if self.pretty:
1873            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1874            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1875            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1876            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1877            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1878
1879        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1880        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1881        return f"({unions}){alias}"
1882
1883    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1884        return self.sql(expression, "this")
1885
1886    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1887        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1888        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1889        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1890
1891    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1892        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1893
1894    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1895        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1896        if group_by_all is True:
1897            modifier = " ALL"
1898        elif group_by_all is False:
1899            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1900        else:
1901            modifier = ""
1902
1903        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1904
1905        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1906        grouping_sets = (
1907            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1908        )
1909
1910        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1911        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1912            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1913        else:
1914            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1915            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1916
1917        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1918        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1919            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1920        else:
1921            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1922            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1923
1924        groupings = csv(
1925            grouping_sets,
1926            cube_sql,
1927            rollup_sql,
1928            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1929            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1930        )
1931
1932        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1933            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1934
1935        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
1936
1937    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1938        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1939        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
1940
1941    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1942        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1943        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1944        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1945        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1946        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1947        return start + connect
1948
1949    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1950        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1951
1952    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1953        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1954            side = None
1955        else:
1956            side = expression.side
1957
1958        op_sql = " ".join(
1959            op
1960            for op in (
1961                expression.method,
1962                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1963                side,
1964                expression.kind,
1965                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1966            )
1967            if op
1968        )
1969        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1970        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1971        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1972        using = expression.args.get("using")
1973
1974        if not on_sql and using:
1975            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1976
1977        this = expression.this
1978        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1979
1980        if on_sql:
1981            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1982            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1983            if using:
1984                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1985            else:
1986                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1987        elif not op_sql:
1988            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1989                return f" {this_sql}"
1990
1991            return f", {this_sql}"
1992
1993        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
1994            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1995
1996        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
1997
1998    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1999        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2000        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2001        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2002
2003    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2004        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2005
2006        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2007        if cross_apply is True:
2008            op = "INNER JOIN "
2009        elif cross_apply is False:
2010            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2011        else:
2012            op = ""
2013
2014        return f"{op}LATERAL"
2015
2016    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2017        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2018
2019        if expression.args.get("view"):
2020            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2021            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2022            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2023            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2024            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2025            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2026
2027        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2028        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2029        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
2030
2031    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2032        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2033
2034        args = [
2035            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2036            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2037            if e
2038        ]
2039
2040        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2041        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2042        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2043        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2044
2045        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
2046
2047    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2048        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2049        value = expression.expression
2050        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2051        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2052        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2053        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
2054
2055    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2056        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2057        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2058        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2059        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2060        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2061        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2062        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2063        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
2064
2065    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2066        expressions = (
2067            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2068        )
2069        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2070        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
2071
2072    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2073        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2074
2075    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2076        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2077            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2078            return ""
2079
2080        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2081        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2082        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2083        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2084
2085        if wait is not None:
2086            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2087                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2088            else:
2089                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2090
2091        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
2092
2093    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2094        text = expression.this or ""
2095        if expression.is_string:
2096            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2097        return text
2098
2099    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2100        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2101            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2102            text = "".join(
2103                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2104            )
2105
2106        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2107            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2108        )
2109
2110    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2111        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2112        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2113        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2114        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2115        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2116        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2117        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2118        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2119        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2120        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2121        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
2122
2123    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2124        return "NULL"
2125
2126    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2127        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
2128
2129    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2130        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2131        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2132        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2133        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2134        interpolated_values = [
2135            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2136            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2137        ]
2138        interpolate = (
2139            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2140        )
2141        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
2142
2143    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2144        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2145        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2146        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2147        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2148        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2149        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2150        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
2151
2152    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2153        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
2154
2155    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2156        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
2157
2158    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2159        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
2160
2161    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2162        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2163        asc = not desc
2164
2165        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2166        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2167        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2168        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2169        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2170
2171        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2172
2173        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2174        nulls_sort_change = ""
2175        if nulls_first and (
2176            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2177        ):
2178            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2179        elif (
2180            nulls_last
2181            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2182            and not nulls_are_last
2183        ):
2184            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2185
2186        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2187        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2188            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2189            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2190                self.unsupported(
2191                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2192                )
2193                nulls_sort_change = ""
2194            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2195                if expression.this.is_int:
2196                    self.unsupported(
2197                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2198                    )
2199                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2200                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2201                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2202                nulls_sort_change = ""
2203
2204        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2205        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2206
2207        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
2208
2209    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2210        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2211        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2212
2213        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2214
2215        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
2216
2217    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2218        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2219        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2220        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2221        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2222        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2223        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2224        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2225        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2226        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2227        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2228        definition_sqls = [
2229            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2230            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2231        ]
2232        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2233        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2234        body = "".join(
2235            (
2236                partition,
2237                order,
2238                measures,
2239                rows,
2240                after,
2241                pattern,
2242                define,
2243            )
2244        )
2245        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2246        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2247        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
2248
2249    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2250        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2251
2252        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2253            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2254        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2255            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2256
2257        return csv(
2258            *sqls,
2259            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2260            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2261            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2262            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2263            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2264            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2265            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2266            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2267            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2268            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2269            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2270            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2271            self.options_modifier(expression),
2272            sep="",
2273        )
2274
2275    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2276        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2277        return f" {options}" if options else ""
2278
2279    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2280        return ""
2281
2282    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2283        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2284    ) -> t.List[str]:
2285        return [
2286            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2287            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2288        ]
2289
2290    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2291        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2292        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2293        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
2294
2295    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2296        into = expression.args.get("into")
2297        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2298            into.pop()
2299
2300        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2301        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2302        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2303        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2304
2305        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2306        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2307            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2308            limit.pop()
2309        else:
2310            top = ""
2311
2312        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2313
2314        if kind:
2315            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2316                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2317            else:
2318                if kind == "STRUCT":
2319                    expressions = self.expressions(
2320                        sqls=[
2321                            self.sql(
2322                                exp.Struct(
2323                                    expressions=[
2324                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2325                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2326                                        else e
2327                                        for e in expression.expressions
2328                                    ]
2329                                )
2330                            )
2331                        ]
2332                    )
2333                kind = ""
2334
2335        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2336        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2337        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2338        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2339        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2340            expression,
2341            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2342            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2343            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2344        )
2345
2346        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2347
2348        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2349            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2350                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2351            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2352                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2353            else:
2354                table_kind = ""
2355            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2356
2357        return sql
2358
2359    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2360        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2361        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2362        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
2363
2364    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2365        if expression.expressions:
2366            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2367        return ""
2368
2369    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2370        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2371        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2372        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2373        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2374        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2375        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2376        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
2377
2378    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2379        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2380        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
2381
2382    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2383        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2384        kind = expression.text("kind")
2385        if kind:
2386            kind = f"{kind}."
2387        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
2388
2389    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2390        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
2391
2392    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2393        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2394        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2395
2396        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2397        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2398
2399        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2400        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2401
2402    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2403        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2404        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2405
2406    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2407        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
2408            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2409            order = expression.args.get("order")
2410
2411            if limit or order:
2412                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2413
2414                if limit:
2415                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2416                if order:
2417                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2418                return self.sql(select)
2419
2420        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2421        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2422
2423        while stack:
2424            node = stack.pop()
2425
2426            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
2427                stack.append(node.expression)
2428                stack.append(
2429                    self.maybe_comment(
2430                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2431                        comments=node.comments,
2432                        separated=True,
2433                    )
2434                )
2435                stack.append(node.this)
2436            else:
2437                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2438
2439        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2440        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2441        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
2442
2443    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2444        return self.set_operations(expression)
2445
2446    def union_op(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2447        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_SET_OP else ""
2448        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2449        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2450        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
2451
2452    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2453        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2454
2455        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2456        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2457
2458        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2459            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2460                alias.append("columns", offset)
2461
2462        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2463            columns = alias.columns
2464            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2465        else:
2466            alias = self.sql(alias)
2467
2468        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2469        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2470            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2471        else:
2472            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2473                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2474            elif offset:
2475                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2476            else:
2477                suffix = alias
2478
2479        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
2480
2481    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2482        return ""
2483
2484    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2485        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2486        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
2487
2488    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2489        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2490        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2491        order = expression.args.get("order")
2492        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2493        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2494        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2495        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2496
2497        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2498
2499        first = expression.args.get("first")
2500        if first is None:
2501            first = ""
2502        else:
2503            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2504
2505        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2506            return f"{this} {alias}"
2507
2508        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2509        return f"{this} ({args})"
2510
2511    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2512        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2513        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
2514
2515    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2516        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2517        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2518        end = (
2519            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2520            or "CURRENT ROW"
2521        )
2522        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
2523
2524    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2525        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2526        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2527        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
2528
2529    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2530        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2531        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2532        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2533        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
2534
2535    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2536        return apply_index_offset(
2537            expression.this,
2538            expression.expressions,
2539            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2540        )
2541
2542    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2543        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2544        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2545        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
2546
2547    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2548        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
2549
2550    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2551        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2552        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2553            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2554                this = self.wrap(this)
2555            return f"ANY{this}"
2556        return f"ANY {this}"
2557
2558    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2559        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
2560
2561    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2562        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2563        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2564
2565        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2566            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2567            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2568
2569        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2570
2571        if default:
2572            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2573
2574        statements.append("END")
2575
2576        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2577            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2578
2579        return " ".join(statements)
2580
2581    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2582        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2583        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2584        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
2585
2586    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2587        order = expression.args.get("order")
2588        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2589        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
2590
2591    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2592        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2593        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2594        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
2595
2596    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2597        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2598
2599        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2600            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2601        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2602            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2603        else:
2604            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
2605
2606    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2607        args = expression.expressions
2608        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2609            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2610
2611        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2612            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2613
2614        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2615            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2616
2617        return args
2618
2619    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2620        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2621
2622        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2623        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2624            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2625
2626        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
2627
2628    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2629        return self.func(
2630            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2631        )
2632
2633    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2634        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2635        return f"CHECK ({this})"
2636
2637    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2638        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2639        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2640        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2641        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2642        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2643        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2644        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2645        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
2646
2647    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2648        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2649        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2650        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2651        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
2652
2653    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2654        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
2655
2656    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2657        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2658        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2659        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
2660
2661    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2662        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
2663
2664    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2665        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2666        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2667            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2668
2669        return path
2670
2671    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2672        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2673            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2674            if not callable(transform):
2675                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2676                return ""
2677
2678            return transform(self, expression)
2679
2680        if isinstance(expression, int):
2681            return str(expression)
2682
2683        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2684            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2685            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2686        else:
2687            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2688            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2689
2690        return escaped
2691
2692    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2693        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
2694
2695    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2696        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2697        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2698
2699        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2700        if unique_keys is not None:
2701            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2702        else:
2703            unique_keys = ""
2704
2705        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2706        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2707        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2708        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2709
2710        return self.func(
2711            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2712            *expression.expressions,
2713            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2714        )
2715
2716    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2717        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
2718
2719    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2720        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2721        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2722        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2723        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2724        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2725        return self.func(
2726            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2727        )
2728
2729    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2730        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2731        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2732        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2733        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2734        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2735        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2736        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2737        return self.func(
2738            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2739            this,
2740            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2741        )
2742
2743    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2744        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2745        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2746        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2747
2748        if nested_schema:
2749            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2750
2751        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2752        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2753        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2754        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
2755
2756    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2757        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
2758
2759    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2760        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2761        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2762        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2763        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2764        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2765        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2766        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2767        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2768        return self.func(
2769            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2770        )
2771
2772    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2773        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2774        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2775        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2776        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2777        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2778        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
2779
2780    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2781        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2782        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2783        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2784        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2785        with_ = (
2786            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2787            if expressions
2788            else ""
2789        )
2790        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
2791
2792    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2793        query = expression.args.get("query")
2794        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2795        field = expression.args.get("field")
2796        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2797
2798        if query:
2799            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2800        elif unnest:
2801            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2802        elif field:
2803            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2804        else:
2805            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2806
2807        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
2808
2809    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2810        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
2811
2812    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2813        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2814        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2815            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2816        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2817
2818        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2819            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2820            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2821
2822        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2823        if this:
2824            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2825            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2826
2827        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
2828
2829    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2830        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2831
2832    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2833        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2834        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2835        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2836        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2837        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2838        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
2839
2840    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2841        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
2842
2843    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2844        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2845        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2846
2847    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2848        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2849        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2850        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2851        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
2852
2853    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2854        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2855
2856    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2857        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2858        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2859        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
2860
2861    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2862        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2863        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2864
2865        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2866            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2867        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2868            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2869
2870        return self.alias_sql(expression)
2871
2872    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2873        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2874
2875    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2876        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2877        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2878        return f"{this} AT {index}"
2879
2880    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2881        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2882        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2883        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
2884
2885    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2886        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2887        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2888        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
2889
2890    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2891        return self.binary(expression, "+")
2892
2893    def and_sql(
2894        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2895    ) -> str:
2896        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
2897
2898    def or_sql(
2899        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2900    ) -> str:
2901        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
2902
2903    def xor_sql(
2904        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2905    ) -> str:
2906        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
2907
2908    def connector_sql(
2909        self,
2910        expression: exp.Connector,
2911        op: str,
2912        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2913    ) -> str:
2914        if stack is not None:
2915            if expression.expressions:
2916                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2917            else:
2918                stack.append(expression.right)
2919                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2920                    for comment in expression.comments:
2921                        if comment:
2922                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2923                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2924            return op
2925
2926        stack = [expression]
2927        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2928        ops = set()
2929
2930        while stack:
2931            node = stack.pop()
2932            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2933                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2934            else:
2935                sql = self.sql(node)
2936                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2937                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2938                else:
2939                    sqls.append(sql)
2940
2941        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2942        return sep.join(sqls)
2943
2944    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2945        return self.binary(expression, "&")
2946
2947    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2948        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
2949
2950    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2951        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2952
2953    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2954        return self.binary(expression, "|")
2955
2956    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2957        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
2958
2959    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2960        return self.binary(expression, "^")
2961
2962    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2963        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2964        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2965        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2966        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2967        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2968        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2969        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
2970
2971    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2972        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2973        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
2974
2975    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2976        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
2977
2978    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2979        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2980            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2981        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
2982
2983    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2984        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
2985
2986    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2987        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2988        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2989        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2990        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2991        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2992        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
2993
2994    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2995        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2996        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2997        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2998        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2999        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3000        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3001        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3002        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3003        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
3004
3005    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3006        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3007        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3008        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3009        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3010
3011        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3012            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3013
3014        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
3015
3016    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3017        return "BEGIN"
3018
3019    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3020        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3021        if chain is not None:
3022            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3023
3024        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
3025
3026    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3027        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3028        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3029        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
3030
3031    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3032        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3033
3034        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3035        if dtype:
3036            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3037            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3038            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3039            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3040            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3041
3042        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3043        if default:
3044            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3045
3046        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3047        if comment:
3048            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3049
3050        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3051        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3052
3053        if not drop and not allow_null:
3054            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3055
3056        if allow_null is not None:
3057            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3058            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3059
3060        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
3061
3062    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3063        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3064        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3065            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3066        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
3067
3068    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3069        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3070        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3071        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3072        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3073        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
3074
3075    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3076        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3077            # Remove db from tables
3078            expression = expression.transform(
3079                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3080            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3081        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3082        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
3083
3084    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3085        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3086        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3087        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3088        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
3089
3090    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3091        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3092        return f"SET {exprs}"
3093
3094    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3095        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3096
3097        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3098            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3099        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3100            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3101        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3102            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3103        else:
3104            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3105
3106        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3107        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3108        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3109        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3110        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3111        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3112        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
3113
3114    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3115        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3116            return self.expressions(
3117                expression,
3118                key="actions",
3119                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3120            )
3121        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
3122
3123    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3124        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3125        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3126        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
3127
3128    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3129        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
3130
3131    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3132        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3133
3134        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3135            case = exp.case()
3136            for arg in expression.expressions:
3137                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3138            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3139
3140        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3141
3142        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3143        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3144        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
3145
3146    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3147        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
3148
3149    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3150        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
3151
3152    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3153        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3154        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3155        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3156        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
3157
3158    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3159        return self.sql(
3160            exp.Cast(
3161                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3162                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3163            )
3164        )
3165
3166    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3167        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3168            return self.func(
3169                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3170            )
3171        return self.binary(expression, "||")
3172
3173    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3174        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3175
3176        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3177            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3178
3179        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3180            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3181                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3182
3183        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3184            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3185                return self.sql(
3186                    exp.cast(
3187                        l / r,
3188                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3189                    )
3190                )
3191
3192        return self.binary(expression, "/")
3193
3194    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3195        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
3196
3197    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3198        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
3199
3200    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3201        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3202
3203    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3204        return self.binary(expression, "=")
3205
3206    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3207        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
3208
3209    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3210        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
3211
3212    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3213        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
3214
3215    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3216        return self.binary(expression, ">")
3217
3218    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3219        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
3220
3221    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3222        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
3223
3224    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3225        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
3226
3227    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3228        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3229            return self.sql(
3230                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3231            )
3232        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
3233
3234    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3235        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
3236
3237    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3238        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
3239
3240    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3241        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
3242
3243    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3244        return self.binary(expression, "<")
3245
3246    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3247        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
3248
3249    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3250        return self.binary(expression, "%")
3251
3252    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3253        return self.binary(expression, "*")
3254
3255    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3256        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
3257
3258    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3259        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
3260
3261    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3262        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
3263
3264    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3265        return self.binary(expression, ":")
3266
3267    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3268        return self.binary(expression, "-")
3269
3270    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3271        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
3272
3273    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3274        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3275            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3276            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3277
3278        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
3279
3280    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3281        this = expression.this
3282        expr = expression.expression
3283
3284        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3285            this, expr = expr, this
3286        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3287            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3288                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3289
3290            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3291
3292        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
3293
3294    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3295        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3296        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3297        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3298        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3299        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
3300
3301    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3302        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3303        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3304
3305    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3306        args = []
3307
3308        for key in expression.arg_types:
3309            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3310
3311            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3312                for value in arg_value:
3313                    args.append(value)
3314            elif arg_value is not None:
3315                args.append(arg_value)
3316
3317        if self.normalize_functions:
3318            name = expression.sql_name()
3319        else:
3320            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3321
3322        return self.func(name, *args)
3323
3324    def func(
3325        self,
3326        name: str,
3327        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3328        prefix: str = "(",
3329        suffix: str = ")",
3330    ) -> str:
3331        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
3332
3333    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3334        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3335        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3336            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3337        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
3338
3339    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3340        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
3341
3342    def format_time(
3343        self,
3344        expression: exp.Expression,
3345        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3346        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3347    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3348        return format_time(
3349            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3350            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3351            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3352        )
3353
3354    def expressions(
3355        self,
3356        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3357        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3358        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3359        flat: bool = False,
3360        indent: bool = True,
3361        skip_first: bool = False,
3362        skip_last: bool = False,
3363        sep: str = ", ",
3364        prefix: str = "",
3365        dynamic: bool = False,
3366        new_line: bool = False,
3367    ) -> str:
3368        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3369
3370        if not expressions:
3371            return ""
3372
3373        if flat:
3374            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3375
3376        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3377
3378        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3379        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
3380            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3381
3382        result_sqls = []
3383        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3384            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3385            if not sql:
3386                continue
3387
3388            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3389
3390            if self.pretty:
3391                if self.leading_comma:
3392                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3393                else:
3394                    result_sqls.append(
3395                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3396                    )
3397            else:
3398                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3399
3400        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3401            if new_line:
3402                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3403                result_sqls.append("")
3404            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
3405        else:
3406            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3407        return (
3408            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3409            if indent
3410            else result_sql
3411        )
3412
3413    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3414        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3415        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3416        if flat:
3417            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3418        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
3419
3420    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3421        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3422        if not property_name:
3423            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3424        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
3425
3426    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3427        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
3428
3429    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3430        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
3431
3432    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3433        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3434        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3435        expressions = (
3436            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3437        )
3438        return f"{this}{expressions}"
3439
3440    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3441        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3442        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3443        return f"{this}({expressions})"
3444
3445    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3446        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
3447
3448    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3449        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3450        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3451        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3452        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3453
3454        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3455        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3456            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3457            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3458            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3459            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3460        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3461            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3462                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3463            else:
3464                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3465        else:
3466            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3467        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
3468
3469    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3470        table = expression.this
3471        table_alias = ""
3472
3473        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3474        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3475            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3476            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3477
3478        this = self.sql(table)
3479        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3480        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3481        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3482        sep = self.sep()
3483
3484        return self.prepend_ctes(
3485            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3486        )
3487
3488    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3489        if expression.args.get("format"):
3490            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3491
3492        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
3493
3494    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3495        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3496            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3497            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3498
3499        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3500        if not fmt:
3501            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3502            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3503
3504        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
3505
3506    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3507        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3508        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3509        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3510        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3511        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
3512
3513    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3514        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3515        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3516        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3517        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
3518
3519    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3520        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
3521
3522    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3523        return ""
3524
3525    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3526        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3527        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3528        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3529        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3530        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
3531
3532    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3533        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3534        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3535
3536        if having:
3537            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3538
3539        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
3540
3541    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3542        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3543        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3544        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3545        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3546        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3547        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3548        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3549        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3550        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3551        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3552        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3553        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3554        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
3555
3556    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3557        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3558        if key_block_size:
3559            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3560
3561        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3562        if using:
3563            return f"USING {using}"
3564
3565        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3566        if parser:
3567            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3568
3569        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3570        if comment:
3571            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3572
3573        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3574        if visible is not None:
3575            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3576
3577        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3578        if engine_attr:
3579            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3580
3581        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3582        if secondary_engine_attr:
3583            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3584
3585        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3586        return ""
3587
3588    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3589        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3590        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
3591
3592    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3593        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3594        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3595        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3596        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3597        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3598        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3599        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3600        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3601        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3602        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3603        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
3604
3605    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3606        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3607            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3608
3609        case = exp.Case().when(
3610            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3611            expression.args["true"],
3612            copy=False,
3613        )
3614        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3615        if else_cond:
3616            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3617
3618        return self.sql(case)
3619
3620    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3621        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3622        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3623        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3624        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3625        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3626        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
3627
3628    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3629        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
3630
3631    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3632        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
3633
3634    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3635        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3636        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3637        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3638        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3639        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3640        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
3641
3642    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3643        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3644        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3645        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
3646
3647    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3648        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3649        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3650        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
3651
3652    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3653        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
3654
3655    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3656        arg = expression.this
3657        if not arg.type:
3658            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3659
3660            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3661
3662        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3663            return self.sql(arg)
3664
3665        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3666        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
3667
3668    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3669        this = expression.this
3670        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3671            return self.sql(this)
3672
3673        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
3674
3675    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3676        this = expression.this
3677        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3678            return self.sql(this)
3679
3680        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
3681
3682    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3683        this = expression.this
3684        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3685
3686        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3687            return self.sql(
3688                exp.cast(
3689                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3690                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3691                )
3692            )
3693
3694        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3695            return self.sql(this)
3696
3697        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
3698
3699    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3700        return self.sql(
3701            exp.func(
3702                "DATEDIFF",
3703                expression.this,
3704                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3705                "day",
3706            )
3707        )
3708
3709    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3710        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3711            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3712
3713        unit = expression.text("unit")
3714        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3715            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3716
3717        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
3718
3719    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3720        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3721
3722        return self.func(
3723            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3724        )
3725
3726    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3727        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3728            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3729            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3730            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3731            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3732
3733        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3734
3735        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3736        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3737            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3738
3739        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3740
3741    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3742        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3743        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3744
3745    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3746        expression.set(
3747            "expressions",
3748            [
3749                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3750                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3751                else e
3752                for e in expression.expressions
3753            ],
3754        )
3755
3756        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3757
3758    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3759        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3760        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3761
3762        return f"{low} TO {high}"
3763
3764    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3765        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3766        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3767
3768        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3769
3770        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3771        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3772
3773        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3774        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3775
3776        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3777        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3778
3779        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3780        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3781
3782        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
3783
3784    # This transpiles T-SQL's CONVERT function
3785    # https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/sql/t-sql/functions/cast-and-convert-transact-sql?view=sql-server-ver16
3786    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3787        to = expression.this
3788        value = expression.expression
3789        style = expression.args.get("style")
3790        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3791        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3792
3793        if not to or not value:
3794            return ""
3795
3796        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3797        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3798            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3799
3800        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3801        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3802
3803        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3804        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3805            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3806
3807            style_value = style.name
3808            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3809            if not converted_style:
3810                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3811
3812            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3813
3814            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3815                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3816            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3817                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3818            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3819                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3820            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3821                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3822
3823        if not transformed:
3824            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3825
3826        return self.sql(transformed)
3827
3828    def _jsonpathkey_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathKey) -> str:
3829        this = expression.this
3830        if isinstance(this, exp.JSONPathWildcard):
3831            this = self.json_path_part(this)
3832            return f".{this}" if this else ""
3833
3834        if exp.SAFE_IDENTIFIER_RE.match(this):
3835            return f".{this}"
3836
3837        this = self.json_path_part(this)
3838        return f"[{this}]" if self.JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED else f".{this}"
3839
3840    def _jsonpathsubscript_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPathSubscript) -> str:
3841        this = self.json_path_part(expression.this)
3842        return f"[{this}]" if this else ""
3843
3844    def _simplify_unless_literal(self, expression: E) -> E:
3845        if not isinstance(expression, exp.Literal):
3846            from sqlglot.optimizer.simplify import simplify
3847
3848            expression = simplify(expression, dialect=self.dialect)
3849
3850        return expression
3851
3852    def _embed_ignore_nulls(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls | exp.RespectNulls, text: str) -> str:
3853        if self.IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC and not expression.meta.get("inline"):
3854            # The first modifier here will be the one closest to the AggFunc's arg
3855            mods = sorted(
3856                expression.find_all(exp.HavingMax, exp.Order, exp.Limit),
3857                key=lambda x: 0
3858                if isinstance(x, exp.HavingMax)
3859                else (1 if isinstance(x, exp.Order) else 2),
3860            )
3861
3862            if mods:
3863                mod = mods[0]
3864                this = expression.__class__(this=mod.this.copy())
3865                this.meta["inline"] = True
3866                mod.this.replace(this)
3867                return self.sql(expression.this)
3868
3869            agg_func = expression.find(exp.AggFunc)
3870
3871            if agg_func:
3872                return self.sql(agg_func)[:-1] + f" {text})"
3873
3874        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {text}"
3875
3876    def _replace_line_breaks(self, string: str) -> str:
3877        """We don't want to extra indent line breaks so we temporarily replace them with sentinels."""
3878        if self.pretty:
3879            return string.replace("\n", self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK)
3880        return string
3881
3882    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3883        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3884
3885        if expression.expressions:
3886            upper = option.upper()
3887
3888            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3889            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3890
3891            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3892            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3893            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3894            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3895
3896        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3897
3898        if not value:
3899            return option
3900
3901        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3902
3903        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
3904
3905    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3906        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3907        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3908            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3909            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3910            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3911        else:
3912            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3913            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3914            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3915
3916        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3917        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3918
3919        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3920        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3921
3922        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3923        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3924
3925        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3926        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3927
3928        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
3929
3930    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3931        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3932        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3933
3934        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3935        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3936        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3937        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3938
3939        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3940        params = self.expressions(
3941            expression,
3942            key="params",
3943            sep=sep,
3944            new_line=True,
3945            skip_last=True,
3946            skip_first=True,
3947            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
3948        )
3949
3950        if params:
3951            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
3952                params = f" WITH ({params})"
3953            elif not self.pretty:
3954                params = f" {params}"
3955
3956        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
3957
3958    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
3959        return ""
3960
3961    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
3962        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
3963        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
3964        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
3965        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
3966        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
3967
3968        if filter_col or retention_period:
3969            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
3970
3971        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
3972
3973    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
3974        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
3975    ) -> str:
3976        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3977        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3978        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3979        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
3980
3981    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
3982        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3983        this = f"TABLE {this}"
3984        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
3985
3986    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
3987        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
3988
3989    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
3990        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3991        expr = expression.expression
3992
3993        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
3994            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
3995            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
3996        else:
3997            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3998
3999        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)

Generator converts a given syntax tree to the corresponding SQL string.

Arguments:
  • pretty: Whether to format the produced SQL string. Default: False.
  • identify: Determines when an identifier should be quoted. Possible values are: False (default): Never quote, except in cases where it's mandatory by the dialect. True or 'always': Always quote. 'safe': Only quote identifiers that are case insensitive.
  • normalize: Whether to normalize identifiers to lowercase. Default: False.
  • pad: The pad size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of a projection in a query, relative to its nesting level. Default: 2.
  • indent: The indentation size in a formatted string. For example, this affects the indentation of subqueries and filters under a WHERE clause. Default: 2.
  • normalize_functions: How to normalize function names. Possible values are: "upper" or True (default): Convert names to uppercase. "lower": Convert names to lowercase. False: Disables function name normalization.
  • unsupported_level: Determines the generator's behavior when it encounters unsupported expressions. Default ErrorLevel.WARN.
  • max_unsupported: Maximum number of unsupported messages to include in a raised UnsupportedError. This is only relevant if unsupported_level is ErrorLevel.RAISE. Default: 3
  • leading_comma: Whether the comma is leading or trailing in select expressions. This is only relevant when generating in pretty mode. Default: False
  • max_text_width: The max number of characters in a segment before creating new lines in pretty mode. The default is on the smaller end because the length only represents a segment and not the true line length. Default: 80
  • comments: Whether to preserve comments in the output SQL code. Default: True
Generator( pretty: Optional[bool] = None, identify: str | bool = False, normalize: bool = False, pad: int = 2, indent: int = 2, normalize_functions: Union[str, bool, NoneType] = None, unsupported_level: sqlglot.errors.ErrorLevel = <ErrorLevel.WARN: 'WARN'>, max_unsupported: int = 3, leading_comma: bool = False, max_text_width: int = 80, comments: bool = True, dialect: Union[str, sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect, Type[sqlglot.dialects.dialect.Dialect], NoneType] = None)
568    def __init__(
569        self,
570        pretty: t.Optional[bool] = None,
571        identify: str | bool = False,
572        normalize: bool = False,
573        pad: int = 2,
574        indent: int = 2,
575        normalize_functions: t.Optional[str | bool] = None,
576        unsupported_level: ErrorLevel = ErrorLevel.WARN,
577        max_unsupported: int = 3,
578        leading_comma: bool = False,
579        max_text_width: int = 80,
580        comments: bool = True,
581        dialect: DialectType = None,
582    ):
583        import sqlglot
584        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
585
586        self.pretty = pretty if pretty is not None else sqlglot.pretty
587        self.identify = identify
588        self.normalize = normalize
589        self.pad = pad
590        self._indent = indent
591        self.unsupported_level = unsupported_level
592        self.max_unsupported = max_unsupported
593        self.leading_comma = leading_comma
594        self.max_text_width = max_text_width
595        self.comments = comments
596        self.dialect = Dialect.get_or_raise(dialect)
597
598        # This is both a Dialect property and a Generator argument, so we prioritize the latter
599        self.normalize_functions = (
600            self.dialect.NORMALIZE_FUNCTIONS if normalize_functions is None else normalize_functions
601        )
602
603        self.unsupported_messages: t.List[str] = []
604        self._escaped_quote_end: str = (
605            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.STRING_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.QUOTE_END
606        )
607        self._escaped_identifier_end: str = (
608            self.dialect.tokenizer_class.IDENTIFIER_ESCAPES[0] + self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END
609        )
610
611        self._next_name = name_sequence("_t")
TRANSFORMS: Dict[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], Callable[..., str]] = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathFilter'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathKey'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRecursive'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathRoot'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathScript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSelector'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSlice'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathSubscript'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathUnion'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathWildcard'>: <function <lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CaseSpecificColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CommentColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DateFormatColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefaultColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EncodeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EphemeralColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExcludeColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InlineLengthColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IntervalSpan'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtract'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JSONExtractScalar'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NonClusteredColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NotForReplicationColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnUpdateColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PathColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ProjectionPolicyColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TagColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TitleColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Timestamp'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UppercaseColumnConstraint'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VarMap'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithOperator'>: <function Generator.<lambda>>}
NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED: Optional[bool] = True
IGNORE_NULLS_IN_FUNC = False
LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED = False
EXPLICIT_SET_OP = False
WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES = True
CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS = True
MATCHED_BY_SOURCE = True
SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL = False
INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM = True
LIMIT_FETCH = 'ALL'
LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS = False
RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB = True
GROUPINGS_SEP = ','
INDEX_ON = 'ON'
JOIN_HINTS = True
TABLE_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINTS = True
QUERY_HINT_SEP = ', '
IS_BOOL_ALLOWED = True
DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET = True
LIMIT_IS_TOP = False
RETURNING_END = True
EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES = True
TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE = False
NVL2_SUPPORTED = True
SELECT_KINDS: Tuple[str, ...] = ('STRUCT', 'VALUE')
VALUES_AS_TABLE = True
ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD = True
UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY = True
AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED = True
SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE = True
COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY = True
TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS = True
TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS = True
TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS = 'TABLESAMPLE'
TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD = True
TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD = 'SEED'
COLLATE_IS_FUNC = False
DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED = False
ENSURE_BOOLS = False
CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED = True
SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT = True
LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART = True
SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS = True
UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS = True
JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP = ':'
INSERT_OVERWRITE = ' OVERWRITE TABLE'
SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO = False
SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES = False
SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE = True
LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA = False
MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT = True
JSON_TYPE_REQUIRED_FOR_EXTRACTION = False
JSON_PATH_BRACKETED_KEY_SUPPORTED = True
JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE = False
CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY = False
SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER = True
SET_OP_MODIFIERS = True
COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED = True
COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED = False
COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD = True
TRY_SUPPORTED = True
SUPPORTS_UESCAPE = True
STAR_EXCEPT = 'EXCEPT'
HEX_FUNC = 'HEX'
WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX = 'WITH'
QUOTE_JSON_PATH = True
TYPE_MAPPING = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>: 'CHAR', <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>: 'VARCHAR', <Type.MEDIUMTEXT: 'MEDIUMTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.LONGTEXT: 'LONGTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.TINYTEXT: 'TINYTEXT'>: 'TEXT', <Type.MEDIUMBLOB: 'MEDIUMBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.LONGBLOB: 'LONGBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.TINYBLOB: 'TINYBLOB'>: 'BLOB', <Type.INET: 'INET'>: 'INET', <Type.ROWVERSION: 'ROWVERSION'>: 'VARBINARY'}
TIME_PART_SINGULARS = {'MICROSECONDS': 'MICROSECOND', 'SECONDS': 'SECOND', 'MINUTES': 'MINUTE', 'HOURS': 'HOUR', 'DAYS': 'DAY', 'WEEKS': 'WEEK', 'MONTHS': 'MONTH', 'QUARTERS': 'QUARTER', 'YEARS': 'YEAR'}
AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS = {'cluster': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'distribute': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'qualify': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'sort': <function Generator.<lambda>>, 'windows': <function Generator.<lambda>>}
TOKEN_MAPPING: Dict[sqlglot.tokens.TokenType, str] = {}
STRUCT_DELIMITER = ('<', '>')
PARAMETER_TOKEN = '@'
NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN = ':'
PROPERTIES_LOCATION = {<class 'sqlglot.expressions.AllowedValuesProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AlgorithmProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoIncrementProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.AutoRefreshProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BackupProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSetProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CollateProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.CopyGrantsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Cluster'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DefinerProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictRange'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DynamicProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.DistStyleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.EngineProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExecuteAsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ExternalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FileFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.GlobalProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.HeapProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InheritsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IcebergProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.InputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LanguageProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LocationProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty'>: <Location.POST_ALIAS: 'POST_ALIAS'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.LogProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MaterializedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.NoPrimaryIndexProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OnCommitProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Order'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.OutputModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedByProperty'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKey'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Property'>: <Location.POST_WITH: 'POST_WITH'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RemoteWithConnectionModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ReturnsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatSerdeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SampleProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SchemaCommentProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SecureProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SerdeProperties'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Set'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SettingsProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetConfigProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SharingProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SortKeyProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlReadWriteProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SqlSecurityProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StabilityProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.StrictProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TemporaryProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ToTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransientProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.TransformModelProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.UnloggedProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.ViewAttributeProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.VolatileProperty'>: <Location.POST_CREATE: 'POST_CREATE'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty'>: <Location.POST_EXPRESSION: 'POST_EXPRESSION'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithJournalTableProperty'>: <Location.POST_NAME: 'POST_NAME'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty'>: <Location.POST_SCHEMA: 'POST_SCHEMA'>}
RESERVED_KEYWORDS: Set[str] = set()
EXCLUDE_COMMENTS: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Binary'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation'>)
UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES: Tuple[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression], ...] = (<class 'sqlglot.expressions.Column'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Literal'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Neg'>, <class 'sqlglot.expressions.Paren'>)
PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES = {<Type.NCHAR: 'NCHAR'>, <Type.CHAR: 'CHAR'>, <Type.NVARCHAR: 'NVARCHAR'>, <Type.VARCHAR: 'VARCHAR'>}
EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES: Set[Type[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = set()
SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK = '__SQLGLOT__LB__'
pretty
identify
normalize
pad
unsupported_level
max_unsupported
leading_comma
max_text_width
comments
dialect
normalize_functions
unsupported_messages: List[str]
def generate( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
613    def generate(self, expression: exp.Expression, copy: bool = True) -> str:
614        """
615        Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.
616
617        Args:
618            expression: The syntax tree.
619            copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so
620                it is safer to copy.
621
622        Returns:
623            The SQL string corresponding to `expression`.
624        """
625        if copy:
626            expression = expression.copy()
627
628        expression = self.preprocess(expression)
629
630        self.unsupported_messages = []
631        sql = self.sql(expression).strip()
632
633        if self.pretty:
634            sql = sql.replace(self.SENTINEL_LINE_BREAK, "\n")
635
636        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IGNORE:
637            return sql
638
639        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.WARN:
640            for msg in self.unsupported_messages:
641                logger.warning(msg)
642        elif self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.RAISE and self.unsupported_messages:
643            raise UnsupportedError(concat_messages(self.unsupported_messages, self.max_unsupported))
644
645        return sql

Generates the SQL string corresponding to the given syntax tree.

Arguments:
  • expression: The syntax tree.
  • copy: Whether to copy the expression. The generator performs mutations so it is safer to copy.
Returns:

The SQL string corresponding to expression.

def preprocess( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> sqlglot.expressions.Expression:
647    def preprocess(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> exp.Expression:
648        """Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression."""
649        if (
650            not expression.parent
651            and type(expression) in self.EXPRESSIONS_WITHOUT_NESTED_CTES
652            and any(node.parent is not expression for node in expression.find_all(exp.With))
653        ):
654            from sqlglot.transforms import move_ctes_to_top_level
655
656            expression = move_ctes_to_top_level(expression)
657
658        if self.ENSURE_BOOLS:
659            from sqlglot.transforms import ensure_bools
660
661            expression = ensure_bools(expression)
662
663        return expression

Apply generic preprocessing transformations to a given expression.

def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
665    def unsupported(self, message: str) -> None:
666        if self.unsupported_level == ErrorLevel.IMMEDIATE:
667            raise UnsupportedError(message)
668        self.unsupported_messages.append(message)
def sep(self, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
670    def sep(self, sep: str = " ") -> str:
671        return f"{sep.strip()}\n" if self.pretty else sep
def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
673    def seg(self, sql: str, sep: str = " ") -> str:
674        return f"{self.sep(sep)}{sql}"
def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
676    def pad_comment(self, comment: str) -> str:
677        comment = " " + comment if comment[0].strip() else comment
678        comment = comment + " " if comment[-1].strip() else comment
679        return comment
def maybe_comment( self, sql: str, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, comments: Optional[List[str]] = None, separated: bool = False) -> str:
681    def maybe_comment(
682        self,
683        sql: str,
684        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
685        comments: t.Optional[t.List[str]] = None,
686        separated: bool = False,
687    ) -> str:
688        comments = (
689            ((expression and expression.comments) if comments is None else comments)  # type: ignore
690            if self.comments
691            else None
692        )
693
694        if not comments or isinstance(expression, self.EXCLUDE_COMMENTS):
695            return sql
696
697        comments_sql = " ".join(
698            f"/*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/" for comment in comments if comment
699        )
700
701        if not comments_sql:
702            return sql
703
704        comments_sql = self._replace_line_breaks(comments_sql)
705
706        if separated or isinstance(expression, self.WITH_SEPARATED_COMMENTS):
707            return (
708                f"{self.sep()}{comments_sql}{sql}"
709                if not sql or sql[0].isspace()
710                else f"{comments_sql}{self.sep()}{sql}"
711            )
712
713        return f"{sql} {comments_sql}"
def wrap(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression | str) -> str:
715    def wrap(self, expression: exp.Expression | str) -> str:
716        this_sql = (
717            self.sql(expression)
718            if isinstance(expression, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES)
719            else self.sql(expression, "this")
720        )
721        if not this_sql:
722            return "()"
723
724        this_sql = self.indent(this_sql, level=1, pad=0)
725        return f"({self.sep('')}{this_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def no_identify(self, func: Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
727    def no_identify(self, func: t.Callable[..., str], *args, **kwargs) -> str:
728        original = self.identify
729        self.identify = False
730        result = func(*args, **kwargs)
731        self.identify = original
732        return result
def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
734    def normalize_func(self, name: str) -> str:
735        if self.normalize_functions == "upper" or self.normalize_functions is True:
736            return name.upper()
737        if self.normalize_functions == "lower":
738            return name.lower()
739        return name
def indent( self, sql: str, level: int = 0, pad: Optional[int] = None, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False) -> str:
741    def indent(
742        self,
743        sql: str,
744        level: int = 0,
745        pad: t.Optional[int] = None,
746        skip_first: bool = False,
747        skip_last: bool = False,
748    ) -> str:
749        if not self.pretty or not sql:
750            return sql
751
752        pad = self.pad if pad is None else pad
753        lines = sql.split("\n")
754
755        return "\n".join(
756            (
757                line
758                if (skip_first and i == 0) or (skip_last and i == len(lines) - 1)
759                else f"{' ' * (level * self._indent + pad)}{line}"
760            )
761            for i, line in enumerate(lines)
762        )
def sql( self, expression: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], key: Optional[str] = None, comment: bool = True) -> str:
764    def sql(
765        self,
766        expression: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression],
767        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
768        comment: bool = True,
769    ) -> str:
770        if not expression:
771            return ""
772
773        if isinstance(expression, str):
774            return expression
775
776        if key:
777            value = expression.args.get(key)
778            if value:
779                return self.sql(value)
780            return ""
781
782        transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
783
784        if callable(transform):
785            sql = transform(self, expression)
786        elif isinstance(expression, exp.Expression):
787            exp_handler_name = f"{expression.key}_sql"
788
789            if hasattr(self, exp_handler_name):
790                sql = getattr(self, exp_handler_name)(expression)
791            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Func):
792                sql = self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
793            elif isinstance(expression, exp.Property):
794                sql = self.property_sql(expression)
795            else:
796                raise ValueError(f"Unsupported expression type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
797        else:
798            raise ValueError(f"Expected an Expression. Received {type(expression)}: {expression}")
799
800        return self.maybe_comment(sql, expression) if self.comments and comment else sql
def uncache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Uncache) -> str:
802    def uncache_sql(self, expression: exp.Uncache) -> str:
803        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
804        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
805        return f"UNCACHE TABLE{exists_sql} {table}"
def cache_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cache) -> str:
807    def cache_sql(self, expression: exp.Cache) -> str:
808        lazy = " LAZY" if expression.args.get("lazy") else ""
809        table = self.sql(expression, "this")
810        options = expression.args.get("options")
811        options = f" OPTIONS({self.sql(options[0])} = {self.sql(options[1])})" if options else ""
812        sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
813        sql = f" AS{self.sep()}{sql}" if sql else ""
814        sql = f"CACHE{lazy} TABLE {table}{options}{sql}"
815        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def characterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CharacterSet) -> str:
817    def characterset_sql(self, expression: exp.CharacterSet) -> str:
818        if isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Cast):
819            return f"CHAR CHARACTER SET {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
820        default = "DEFAULT " if expression.args.get("default") else ""
821        return f"{default}CHARACTER SET={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def column_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
823    def column_parts(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
824        return ".".join(
825            self.sql(part)
826            for part in (
827                expression.args.get("catalog"),
828                expression.args.get("db"),
829                expression.args.get("table"),
830                expression.args.get("this"),
831            )
832            if part
833        )
def column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Column) -> str:
835    def column_sql(self, expression: exp.Column) -> str:
836        join_mark = " (+)" if expression.args.get("join_mark") else ""
837
838        if join_mark and not self.dialect.SUPPORTS_COLUMN_JOIN_MARKS:
839            join_mark = ""
840            self.unsupported("Outer join syntax using the (+) operator is not supported.")
841
842        return f"{self.column_parts(expression)}{join_mark}"
def columnposition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPosition) -> str:
844    def columnposition_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPosition) -> str:
845        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
846        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
847        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
848        return f"{position}{this}"
def columndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnDef, sep: str = ' ') -> str:
850    def columndef_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnDef, sep: str = " ") -> str:
851        column = self.sql(expression, "this")
852        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
853        constraints = self.expressions(expression, key="constraints", sep=" ", flat=True)
854        exists = "IF NOT EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
855        kind = f"{sep}{kind}" if kind else ""
856        constraints = f" {constraints}" if constraints else ""
857        position = self.sql(expression, "position")
858        position = f" {position}" if position else ""
859
860        if expression.find(exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) and not self.COMPUTED_COLUMN_WITH_TYPE:
861            kind = ""
862
863        return f"{exists}{column}{kind}{constraints}{position}"
def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
865    def columnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnConstraint) -> str:
866        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
867        kind_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind").strip()
868        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {kind_sql}" if this else kind_sql
def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
870    def computedcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.ComputedColumnConstraint) -> str:
871        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
872        if expression.args.get("not_null"):
873            persisted = " PERSISTED NOT NULL"
874        elif expression.args.get("persisted"):
875            persisted = " PERSISTED"
876        else:
877            persisted = ""
878        return f"AS {this}{persisted}"
def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
880    def autoincrementcolumnconstraint_sql(self, _) -> str:
881        return self.token_sql(TokenType.AUTO_INCREMENT)
def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
883    def compresscolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CompressColumnConstraint) -> str:
884        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
885            this = self.wrap(self.expressions(expression, key="this", flat=True))
886        else:
887            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
888
889        return f"COMPRESS {this}"
def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint) -> str:
891    def generatedasidentitycolumnconstraint_sql(
892        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsIdentityColumnConstraint
893    ) -> str:
894        this = ""
895        if expression.this is not None:
896            on_null = " ON NULL" if expression.args.get("on_null") else ""
897            this = " ALWAYS" if expression.this else f" BY DEFAULT{on_null}"
898
899        start = expression.args.get("start")
900        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
901        increment = expression.args.get("increment")
902        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
903        minvalue = expression.args.get("minvalue")
904        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
905        maxvalue = expression.args.get("maxvalue")
906        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
907        cycle = expression.args.get("cycle")
908        cycle_sql = ""
909
910        if cycle is not None:
911            cycle_sql = f"{' NO' if not cycle else ''} CYCLE"
912            cycle_sql = cycle_sql.strip() if not start and not increment else cycle_sql
913
914        sequence_opts = ""
915        if start or increment or cycle_sql:
916            sequence_opts = f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cycle_sql}"
917            sequence_opts = f" ({sequence_opts.strip()})"
918
919        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
920        expr = f"({expr})" if expr else "IDENTITY"
921
922        return f"GENERATED{this} AS {expr}{sequence_opts}"
def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint) -> str:
924    def generatedasrowcolumnconstraint_sql(
925        self, expression: exp.GeneratedAsRowColumnConstraint
926    ) -> str:
927        start = "START" if expression.args.get("start") else "END"
928        hidden = " HIDDEN" if expression.args.get("hidden") else ""
929        return f"GENERATED ALWAYS AS ROW {start}{hidden}"
def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint) -> str:
931    def periodforsystemtimeconstraint_sql(
932        self, expression: exp.PeriodForSystemTimeConstraint
933    ) -> str:
934        return f"PERIOD FOR SYSTEM_TIME ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}, {self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
936    def notnullcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.NotNullColumnConstraint) -> str:
937        return f"{'' if expression.args.get('allow_null') else 'NOT '}NULL"
def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
939    def transformcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.TransformColumnConstraint) -> str:
940        return f"AS {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
942    def primarykeycolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.PrimaryKeyColumnConstraint) -> str:
943        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
944        if desc is not None:
945            return f"PRIMARY KEY{' DESC' if desc else ' ASC'}"
946        return "PRIMARY KEY"
def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
948    def uniquecolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.UniqueColumnConstraint) -> str:
949        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
950        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
951        index_type = expression.args.get("index_type")
952        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
953        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "on_conflict")
954        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
955        return f"UNIQUE{this}{index_type}{on_conflict}"
def createable_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create, locations: DefaultDict) -> str:
957    def createable_sql(self, expression: exp.Create, locations: t.DefaultDict) -> str:
958        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def create_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Create) -> str:
 960    def create_sql(self, expression: exp.Create) -> str:
 961        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
 962        properties = expression.args.get("properties")
 963        properties_locs = self.locate_properties(properties) if properties else defaultdict()
 964
 965        this = self.createable_sql(expression, properties_locs)
 966
 967        properties_sql = ""
 968        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA) or properties_locs.get(
 969            exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH
 970        ):
 971            properties_sql = self.sql(
 972                exp.Properties(
 973                    expressions=[
 974                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA],
 975                        *properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH],
 976                    ]
 977                )
 978            )
 979
 980            if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA):
 981                properties_sql = self.sep() + properties_sql
 982            elif not self.pretty:
 983                # Standalone POST_WITH properties need a leading whitespace in non-pretty mode
 984                properties_sql = f" {properties_sql}"
 985
 986        begin = " BEGIN" if expression.args.get("begin") else ""
 987        end = " END" if expression.args.get("end") else ""
 988
 989        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
 990        if expression_sql:
 991            expression_sql = f"{begin}{self.sep()}{expression_sql}{end}"
 992
 993            if self.CREATE_FUNCTION_RETURN_AS or not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Return):
 994                if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS):
 995                    postalias_props_sql = self.properties(
 996                        exp.Properties(
 997                            expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_ALIAS]
 998                        ),
 999                        wrapped=False,
1000                    )
1001                    expression_sql = f" AS {postalias_props_sql}{expression_sql}"
1002                else:
1003                    expression_sql = f" AS{expression_sql}"
1004
1005        postindex_props_sql = ""
1006        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX):
1007            postindex_props_sql = self.properties(
1008                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_INDEX]),
1009                wrapped=False,
1010                prefix=" ",
1011            )
1012
1013        indexes = self.expressions(expression, key="indexes", indent=False, sep=" ")
1014        indexes = f" {indexes}" if indexes else ""
1015        index_sql = indexes + postindex_props_sql
1016
1017        replace = " OR REPLACE" if expression.args.get("replace") else ""
1018        unique = " UNIQUE" if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1019
1020        postcreate_props_sql = ""
1021        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE):
1022            postcreate_props_sql = self.properties(
1023                exp.Properties(expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_CREATE]),
1024                sep=" ",
1025                prefix=" ",
1026                wrapped=False,
1027            )
1028
1029        modifiers = "".join((replace, unique, postcreate_props_sql))
1030
1031        postexpression_props_sql = ""
1032        if properties_locs.get(exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION):
1033            postexpression_props_sql = self.properties(
1034                exp.Properties(
1035                    expressions=properties_locs[exp.Properties.Location.POST_EXPRESSION]
1036                ),
1037                sep=" ",
1038                prefix=" ",
1039                wrapped=False,
1040            )
1041
1042        exists_sql = " IF NOT EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1043        no_schema_binding = (
1044            " WITH NO SCHEMA BINDING" if expression.args.get("no_schema_binding") else ""
1045        )
1046
1047        clone = self.sql(expression, "clone")
1048        clone = f" {clone}" if clone else ""
1049
1050        expression_sql = f"CREATE{modifiers} {kind}{exists_sql} {this}{properties_sql}{expression_sql}{postexpression_props_sql}{index_sql}{no_schema_binding}{clone}"
1051        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, expression_sql)
def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1053    def sequenceproperties_sql(self, expression: exp.SequenceProperties) -> str:
1054        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1055        start = f"START WITH {start}" if start else ""
1056        increment = self.sql(expression, "increment")
1057        increment = f" INCREMENT BY {increment}" if increment else ""
1058        minvalue = self.sql(expression, "minvalue")
1059        minvalue = f" MINVALUE {minvalue}" if minvalue else ""
1060        maxvalue = self.sql(expression, "maxvalue")
1061        maxvalue = f" MAXVALUE {maxvalue}" if maxvalue else ""
1062        owned = self.sql(expression, "owned")
1063        owned = f" OWNED BY {owned}" if owned else ""
1064
1065        cache = expression.args.get("cache")
1066        if cache is None:
1067            cache_str = ""
1068        elif cache is True:
1069            cache_str = " CACHE"
1070        else:
1071            cache_str = f" CACHE {cache}"
1072
1073        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
1074        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1075
1076        return f"{start}{increment}{minvalue}{maxvalue}{cache_str}{options}{owned}".lstrip()
def clone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Clone) -> str:
1078    def clone_sql(self, expression: exp.Clone) -> str:
1079        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1080        shallow = "SHALLOW " if expression.args.get("shallow") else ""
1081        keyword = "COPY" if expression.args.get("copy") and self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_COPY else "CLONE"
1082        return f"{shallow}{keyword} {this}"
def describe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Describe) -> str:
1084    def describe_sql(self, expression: exp.Describe) -> str:
1085        style = expression.args.get("style")
1086        style = f" {style}" if style else ""
1087        return f"DESCRIBE{style} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def heredoc_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Heredoc) -> str:
1089    def heredoc_sql(self, expression: exp.Heredoc) -> str:
1090        tag = self.sql(expression, "tag")
1091        return f"${tag}${self.sql(expression, 'this')}${tag}$"
def prepend_ctes(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1093    def prepend_ctes(self, expression: exp.Expression, sql: str) -> str:
1094        with_ = self.sql(expression, "with")
1095        if with_:
1096            sql = f"{with_}{self.sep()}{sql}"
1097        return sql
def with_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.With) -> str:
1099    def with_sql(self, expression: exp.With) -> str:
1100        sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1101        recursive = (
1102            "RECURSIVE "
1103            if self.CTE_RECURSIVE_KEYWORD_REQUIRED and expression.args.get("recursive")
1104            else ""
1105        )
1106
1107        return f"WITH {recursive}{sql}"
def cte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CTE) -> str:
1109    def cte_sql(self, expression: exp.CTE) -> str:
1110        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1111
1112        materialized = expression.args.get("materialized")
1113        if materialized is False:
1114            materialized = "NOT MATERIALIZED "
1115        elif materialized:
1116            materialized = "MATERIALIZED "
1117
1118        return f"{alias} AS {materialized or ''}{self.wrap(expression)}"
def tablealias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableAlias) -> str:
1120    def tablealias_sql(self, expression: exp.TableAlias) -> str:
1121        alias = self.sql(expression, "this")
1122        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1123        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1124
1125        if columns and not self.SUPPORTS_TABLE_ALIAS_COLUMNS:
1126            columns = ""
1127            self.unsupported("Named columns are not supported in table alias.")
1128
1129        if not alias and not self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
1130            alias = self._next_name()
1131
1132        return f"{alias}{columns}"
def bitstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitString) -> str:
1134    def bitstring_sql(self, expression: exp.BitString) -> str:
1135        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1136        if self.dialect.BIT_START:
1137            return f"{self.dialect.BIT_START}{this}{self.dialect.BIT_END}"
1138        return f"{int(this, 2)}"
def hexstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HexString) -> str:
1140    def hexstring_sql(self, expression: exp.HexString) -> str:
1141        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1142        if self.dialect.HEX_START:
1143            return f"{self.dialect.HEX_START}{this}{self.dialect.HEX_END}"
1144        return f"{int(this, 16)}"
def bytestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ByteString) -> str:
1146    def bytestring_sql(self, expression: exp.ByteString) -> str:
1147        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1148        if self.dialect.BYTE_START:
1149            return f"{self.dialect.BYTE_START}{this}{self.dialect.BYTE_END}"
1150        return this
def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnicodeString) -> str:
1152    def unicodestring_sql(self, expression: exp.UnicodeString) -> str:
1153        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1154        escape = expression.args.get("escape")
1155
1156        if self.dialect.UNICODE_START:
1157            escape_substitute = r"\\\1"
1158            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.UNICODE_START, self.dialect.UNICODE_END
1159        else:
1160            escape_substitute = r"\\u\1"
1161            left_quote, right_quote = self.dialect.QUOTE_START, self.dialect.QUOTE_END
1162
1163        if escape:
1164            escape_pattern = re.compile(rf"{escape.name}(\d+)")
1165            escape_sql = f" UESCAPE {self.sql(escape)}" if self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE else ""
1166        else:
1167            escape_pattern = ESCAPED_UNICODE_RE
1168            escape_sql = ""
1169
1170        if not self.dialect.UNICODE_START or (escape and not self.SUPPORTS_UESCAPE):
1171            this = escape_pattern.sub(escape_substitute, this)
1172
1173        return f"{left_quote}{this}{right_quote}{escape_sql}"
def rawstring_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RawString) -> str:
1175    def rawstring_sql(self, expression: exp.RawString) -> str:
1176        string = self.escape_str(expression.this.replace("\\", "\\\\"), escape_backslash=False)
1177        return f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{string}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1179    def datatypeparam_sql(self, expression: exp.DataTypeParam) -> str:
1180        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1181        specifier = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1182        specifier = f" {specifier}" if specifier and self.DATA_TYPE_SPECIFIERS_ALLOWED else ""
1183        return f"{this}{specifier}"
def datatype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataType) -> str:
1185    def datatype_sql(self, expression: exp.DataType) -> str:
1186        type_value = expression.this
1187
1188        if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.USERDEFINED and expression.args.get("kind"):
1189            type_sql = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1190        else:
1191            type_sql = (
1192                self.TYPE_MAPPING.get(type_value, type_value.value)
1193                if isinstance(type_value, exp.DataType.Type)
1194                else type_value
1195            )
1196
1197        nested = ""
1198        interior = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1199        values = ""
1200
1201        if interior:
1202            if expression.args.get("nested"):
1203                nested = f"{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[0]}{interior}{self.STRUCT_DELIMITER[1]}"
1204                if expression.args.get("values") is not None:
1205                    delimiters = ("[", "]") if type_value == exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY else ("(", ")")
1206                    values = self.expressions(expression, key="values", flat=True)
1207                    values = f"{delimiters[0]}{values}{delimiters[1]}"
1208            elif type_value == exp.DataType.Type.INTERVAL:
1209                nested = f" {interior}"
1210            else:
1211                nested = f"({interior})"
1212
1213        type_sql = f"{type_sql}{nested}{values}"
1214        if self.TZ_TO_WITH_TIME_ZONE and type_value in (
1215            exp.DataType.Type.TIMETZ,
1216            exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMPTZ,
1217        ):
1218            type_sql = f"{type_sql} WITH TIME ZONE"
1219
1220        return type_sql
def directory_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Directory) -> str:
1222    def directory_sql(self, expression: exp.Directory) -> str:
1223        local = "LOCAL " if expression.args.get("local") else ""
1224        row_format = self.sql(expression, "row_format")
1225        row_format = f" {row_format}" if row_format else ""
1226        return f"{local}DIRECTORY {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{row_format}"
def delete_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Delete) -> str:
1228    def delete_sql(self, expression: exp.Delete) -> str:
1229        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1230        this = f" FROM {this}" if this else ""
1231        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1232        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1233        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1234        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1235        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1236        tables = self.expressions(expression, key="tables")
1237        tables = f" {tables}" if tables else ""
1238        if self.RETURNING_END:
1239            expression_sql = f"{this}{using}{where}{returning}{limit}"
1240        else:
1241            expression_sql = f"{returning}{this}{using}{where}{limit}"
1242        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, f"DELETE{tables}{expression_sql}")
def drop_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Drop) -> str:
1244    def drop_sql(self, expression: exp.Drop) -> str:
1245        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1246        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1247        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
1248        kind = expression.args["kind"]
1249        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
1250        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
1251        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
1252        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1253        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
1254        cascade = " CASCADE" if expression.args.get("cascade") else ""
1255        constraints = " CONSTRAINTS" if expression.args.get("constraints") else ""
1256        purge = " PURGE" if expression.args.get("purge") else ""
1257        return f"DROP{temporary}{materialized} {kind}{exists_sql}{this}{on_cluster}{expressions}{cascade}{constraints}{purge}"
def except_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1259    def except_sql(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1260        return self.set_operations(expression)
def except_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Except) -> str:
1262    def except_op(self, expression: exp.Except) -> str:
1263        return f"EXCEPT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def fetch_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Fetch) -> str:
1265    def fetch_sql(self, expression: exp.Fetch) -> str:
1266        direction = expression.args.get("direction")
1267        direction = f" {direction}" if direction else ""
1268        count = expression.args.get("count")
1269        count = f" {count}" if count else ""
1270        if expression.args.get("percent"):
1271            count = f"{count} PERCENT"
1272        with_ties_or_only = "WITH TIES" if expression.args.get("with_ties") else "ONLY"
1273        return f"{self.seg('FETCH')}{direction}{count} ROWS {with_ties_or_only}"
def filter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Filter) -> str:
1275    def filter_sql(self, expression: exp.Filter) -> str:
1276        if self.AGGREGATE_FILTER_SUPPORTED:
1277            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1278            where = self.sql(expression, "expression").strip()
1279            return f"{this} FILTER({where})"
1280
1281        agg = expression.this
1282        agg_arg = agg.this
1283        cond = expression.expression.this
1284        agg_arg.replace(exp.If(this=cond.copy(), true=agg_arg.copy()))
1285        return self.sql(agg)
def hint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hint) -> str:
1287    def hint_sql(self, expression: exp.Hint) -> str:
1288        if not self.QUERY_HINTS:
1289            self.unsupported("Hints are not supported")
1290            return ""
1291
1292        return f" /*+ {self.expressions(expression, sep=self.QUERY_HINT_SEP).strip()} */"
def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexParameters) -> str:
1294    def indexparameters_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexParameters) -> str:
1295        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
1296        using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
1297        columns = self.expressions(expression, key="columns", flat=True)
1298        columns = f"({columns})" if columns else ""
1299        partition_by = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
1300        partition_by = f" PARTITION BY {partition_by}" if partition_by else ""
1301        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1302        include = self.expressions(expression, key="include", flat=True)
1303        if include:
1304            include = f" INCLUDE ({include})"
1305        with_storage = self.expressions(expression, key="with_storage", flat=True)
1306        with_storage = f" WITH ({with_storage})" if with_storage else ""
1307        tablespace = self.sql(expression, "tablespace")
1308        tablespace = f" USING INDEX TABLESPACE {tablespace}" if tablespace else ""
1309        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
1310        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
1311
1312        return f"{using}{columns}{include}{with_storage}{tablespace}{partition_by}{where}{on}"
def index_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Index) -> str:
1314    def index_sql(self, expression: exp.Index) -> str:
1315        unique = "UNIQUE " if expression.args.get("unique") else ""
1316        primary = "PRIMARY " if expression.args.get("primary") else ""
1317        amp = "AMP " if expression.args.get("amp") else ""
1318        name = self.sql(expression, "this")
1319        name = f"{name} " if name else ""
1320        table = self.sql(expression, "table")
1321        table = f"{self.INDEX_ON} {table}" if table else ""
1322
1323        index = "INDEX " if not table else ""
1324
1325        params = self.sql(expression, "params")
1326        return f"{unique}{primary}{amp}{index}{name}{table}{params}"
def identifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Identifier) -> str:
1328    def identifier_sql(self, expression: exp.Identifier) -> str:
1329        text = expression.name
1330        lower = text.lower()
1331        text = lower if self.normalize and not expression.quoted else text
1332        text = text.replace(self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END, self._escaped_identifier_end)
1333        if (
1334            expression.quoted
1335            or self.dialect.can_identify(text, self.identify)
1336            or lower in self.RESERVED_KEYWORDS
1337            or (not self.dialect.IDENTIFIERS_CAN_START_WITH_DIGIT and text[:1].isdigit())
1338        ):
1339            text = f"{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_START}{text}{self.dialect.IDENTIFIER_END}"
1340        return text
def hex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Hex) -> str:
1342    def hex_sql(self, expression: exp.Hex) -> str:
1343        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1344        if self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1345            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1346
1347        return text
def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LowerHex) -> str:
1349    def lowerhex_sql(self, expression: exp.LowerHex) -> str:
1350        text = self.func(self.HEX_FUNC, self.sql(expression, "this"))
1351        if not self.dialect.HEX_LOWERCASE:
1352            text = self.func("LOWER", text)
1353        return text
def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1355    def inputoutputformat_sql(self, expression: exp.InputOutputFormat) -> str:
1356        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
1357        input_format = f"INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
1358        output_format = self.sql(expression, "output_format")
1359        output_format = f"OUTPUTFORMAT {output_format}" if output_format else ""
1360        return self.sep().join((input_format, output_format))
def national_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.National, prefix: str = 'N') -> str:
1362    def national_sql(self, expression: exp.National, prefix: str = "N") -> str:
1363        string = self.sql(exp.Literal.string(expression.name))
1364        return f"{prefix}{string}"
def partition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Partition) -> str:
1366    def partition_sql(self, expression: exp.Partition) -> str:
1367        return f"PARTITION({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def properties_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1369    def properties_sql(self, expression: exp.Properties) -> str:
1370        root_properties = []
1371        with_properties = []
1372
1373        for p in expression.expressions:
1374            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1375            if p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_WITH:
1376                with_properties.append(p)
1377            elif p_loc == exp.Properties.Location.POST_SCHEMA:
1378                root_properties.append(p)
1379
1380        root_props = self.root_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=root_properties))
1381        with_props = self.with_properties(exp.Properties(expressions=with_properties))
1382
1383        if root_props and with_props and not self.pretty:
1384            with_props = " " + with_props
1385
1386        return root_props + with_props
def root_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1388    def root_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1389        if properties.expressions:
1390            return self.expressions(properties, indent=False, sep=" ")
1391        return ""
def properties( self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties, prefix: str = '', sep: str = ', ', suffix: str = '', wrapped: bool = True) -> str:
1393    def properties(
1394        self,
1395        properties: exp.Properties,
1396        prefix: str = "",
1397        sep: str = ", ",
1398        suffix: str = "",
1399        wrapped: bool = True,
1400    ) -> str:
1401        if properties.expressions:
1402            expressions = self.expressions(properties, sep=sep, indent=False)
1403            if expressions:
1404                expressions = self.wrap(expressions) if wrapped else expressions
1405                return f"{prefix}{' ' if prefix.strip() else ''}{expressions}{suffix}"
1406        return ""
def with_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> str:
1408    def with_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> str:
1409        return self.properties(properties, prefix=self.seg(self.WITH_PROPERTIES_PREFIX, sep=""))
def locate_properties(self, properties: sqlglot.expressions.Properties) -> DefaultDict:
1411    def locate_properties(self, properties: exp.Properties) -> t.DefaultDict:
1412        properties_locs = defaultdict(list)
1413        for p in properties.expressions:
1414            p_loc = self.PROPERTIES_LOCATION[p.__class__]
1415            if p_loc != exp.Properties.Location.UNSUPPORTED:
1416                properties_locs[p_loc].append(p)
1417            else:
1418                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {p.key}")
1419
1420        return properties_locs
def property_name( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1422    def property_name(self, expression: exp.Property, string_key: bool = False) -> str:
1423        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Dot):
1424            return self.sql(expression, "this")
1425        return f"'{expression.name}'" if string_key else expression.name
def property_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
1427    def property_sql(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
1428        property_cls = expression.__class__
1429        if property_cls == exp.Property:
1430            return f"{self.property_name(expression)}={self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
1431
1432        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(property_cls)
1433        if not property_name:
1434            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.key}")
1435
1436        return f"{property_name}={self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeProperty) -> str:
1438    def likeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeProperty) -> str:
1439        if self.SUPPORTS_CREATE_TABLE_LIKE:
1440            options = " ".join(f"{e.name} {self.sql(e, 'value')}" for e in expression.expressions)
1441            options = f" {options}" if options else ""
1442
1443            like = f"LIKE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{options}"
1444            if self.LIKE_PROPERTY_INSIDE_SCHEMA and not isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Schema):
1445                like = f"({like})"
1446
1447            return like
1448
1449        if expression.expressions:
1450            self.unsupported("Transpilation of LIKE property options is unsupported")
1451
1452        select = exp.select("*").from_(expression.this).limit(0)
1453        return f"AS {self.sql(select)}"
def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1455    def fallbackproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FallbackProperty) -> str:
1456        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1457        protection = " PROTECTION" if expression.args.get("protection") else ""
1458        return f"{no}FALLBACK{protection}"
def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JournalProperty) -> str:
1460    def journalproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.JournalProperty) -> str:
1461        no = "NO " if expression.args.get("no") else ""
1462        local = expression.args.get("local")
1463        local = f"{local} " if local else ""
1464        dual = "DUAL " if expression.args.get("dual") else ""
1465        before = "BEFORE " if expression.args.get("before") else ""
1466        after = "AFTER " if expression.args.get("after") else ""
1467        return f"{no}{local}{dual}{before}{after}JOURNAL"
def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1469    def freespaceproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.FreespaceProperty) -> str:
1470        freespace = self.sql(expression, "this")
1471        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1472        return f"FREESPACE={freespace}{percent}"
def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1474    def checksumproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ChecksumProperty) -> str:
1475        if expression.args.get("default"):
1476            property = "DEFAULT"
1477        elif expression.args.get("on"):
1478            property = "ON"
1479        else:
1480            property = "OFF"
1481        return f"CHECKSUM={property}"
def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1483    def mergeblockratioproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeBlockRatioProperty) -> str:
1484        if expression.args.get("no"):
1485            return "NO MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1486        if expression.args.get("default"):
1487            return "DEFAULT MERGEBLOCKRATIO"
1488
1489        percent = " PERCENT" if expression.args.get("percent") else ""
1490        return f"MERGEBLOCKRATIO={self.sql(expression, 'this')}{percent}"
def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1492    def datablocksizeproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataBlocksizeProperty) -> str:
1493        default = expression.args.get("default")
1494        minimum = expression.args.get("minimum")
1495        maximum = expression.args.get("maximum")
1496        if default or minimum or maximum:
1497            if default:
1498                prop = "DEFAULT"
1499            elif minimum:
1500                prop = "MINIMUM"
1501            else:
1502                prop = "MAXIMUM"
1503            return f"{prop} DATABLOCKSIZE"
1504        units = expression.args.get("units")
1505        units = f" {units}" if units else ""
1506        return f"DATABLOCKSIZE={self.sql(expression, 'size')}{units}"
def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1508    def blockcompressionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.BlockCompressionProperty) -> str:
1509        autotemp = expression.args.get("autotemp")
1510        always = expression.args.get("always")
1511        default = expression.args.get("default")
1512        manual = expression.args.get("manual")
1513        never = expression.args.get("never")
1514
1515        if autotemp is not None:
1516            prop = f"AUTOTEMP({self.expressions(autotemp)})"
1517        elif always:
1518            prop = "ALWAYS"
1519        elif default:
1520            prop = "DEFAULT"
1521        elif manual:
1522            prop = "MANUAL"
1523        elif never:
1524            prop = "NEVER"
1525        return f"BLOCKCOMPRESSION={prop}"
def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1527    def isolatedloadingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.IsolatedLoadingProperty) -> str:
1528        no = expression.args.get("no")
1529        no = " NO" if no else ""
1530        concurrent = expression.args.get("concurrent")
1531        concurrent = " CONCURRENT" if concurrent else ""
1532        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1533        target = f" {target}" if target else ""
1534        return f"WITH{no}{concurrent} ISOLATED LOADING{target}"
def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1536    def partitionboundspec_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionBoundSpec) -> str:
1537        if isinstance(expression.this, list):
1538            return f"IN ({self.expressions(expression, key='this', flat=True)})"
1539        if expression.this:
1540            modulus = self.sql(expression, "this")
1541            remainder = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1542            return f"WITH (MODULUS {modulus}, REMAINDER {remainder})"
1543
1544        from_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="from_expressions", flat=True)
1545        to_expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="to_expressions", flat=True)
1546        return f"FROM ({from_expressions}) TO ({to_expressions})"
def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1548    def partitionedofproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionedOfProperty) -> str:
1549        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1550
1551        for_values_or_default = expression.expression
1552        if isinstance(for_values_or_default, exp.PartitionBoundSpec):
1553            for_values_or_default = f" FOR VALUES {self.sql(for_values_or_default)}"
1554        else:
1555            for_values_or_default = " DEFAULT"
1556
1557        return f"PARTITION OF {this}{for_values_or_default}"
def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LockingProperty) -> str:
1559    def lockingproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.LockingProperty) -> str:
1560        kind = expression.args.get("kind")
1561        this = f" {self.sql(expression, 'this')}" if expression.this else ""
1562        for_or_in = expression.args.get("for_or_in")
1563        for_or_in = f" {for_or_in}" if for_or_in else ""
1564        lock_type = expression.args.get("lock_type")
1565        override = " OVERRIDE" if expression.args.get("override") else ""
1566        return f"LOCKING {kind}{this}{for_or_in} {lock_type}{override}"
def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1568    def withdataproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithDataProperty) -> str:
1569        data_sql = f"WITH {'NO ' if expression.args.get('no') else ''}DATA"
1570        statistics = expression.args.get("statistics")
1571        statistics_sql = ""
1572        if statistics is not None:
1573            statistics_sql = f" AND {'NO ' if not statistics else ''}STATISTICS"
1574        return f"{data_sql}{statistics_sql}"
def withsystemversioningproperty_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1576    def withsystemversioningproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.WithSystemVersioningProperty) -> str:
1577        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1578        this = f"HISTORY_TABLE={this}" if this else ""
1579        data_consistency: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "data_consistency")
1580        data_consistency = (
1581            f"DATA_CONSISTENCY_CHECK={data_consistency}" if data_consistency else None
1582        )
1583        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
1584        retention_period = (
1585            f"HISTORY_RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
1586        )
1587
1588        if this:
1589            on_sql = self.func("ON", this, data_consistency, retention_period)
1590        else:
1591            on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
1592
1593        sql = f"SYSTEM_VERSIONING={on_sql}"
1594
1595        return f"WITH({sql})" if expression.args.get("with") else sql
def insert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Insert) -> str:
1597    def insert_sql(self, expression: exp.Insert) -> str:
1598        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
1599        overwrite = expression.args.get("overwrite")
1600
1601        if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Directory):
1602            this = " OVERWRITE" if overwrite else " INTO"
1603        else:
1604            this = self.INSERT_OVERWRITE if overwrite else " INTO"
1605
1606        stored = self.sql(expression, "stored")
1607        stored = f" {stored}" if stored else ""
1608        alternative = expression.args.get("alternative")
1609        alternative = f" OR {alternative}" if alternative else ""
1610        ignore = " IGNORE" if expression.args.get("ignore") else ""
1611        is_function = expression.args.get("is_function")
1612        if is_function:
1613            this = f"{this} FUNCTION"
1614        this = f"{this} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
1615
1616        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
1617        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
1618        where = f"{self.sep()}REPLACE WHERE {where}" if where else ""
1619        expression_sql = f"{self.sep()}{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
1620        on_conflict = self.sql(expression, "conflict")
1621        on_conflict = f" {on_conflict}" if on_conflict else ""
1622        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
1623        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1624
1625        if self.RETURNING_END:
1626            expression_sql = f"{expression_sql}{on_conflict}{returning}"
1627        else:
1628            expression_sql = f"{returning}{expression_sql}{on_conflict}"
1629
1630        sql = f"INSERT{hint}{alternative}{ignore}{this}{stored}{by_name}{exists}{where}{expression_sql}"
1631        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def intersect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1633    def intersect_sql(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1634        return self.set_operations(expression)
def intersect_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Intersect) -> str:
1636    def intersect_op(self, expression: exp.Intersect) -> str:
1637        return f"INTERSECT{'' if expression.args.get('distinct') else ' ALL'}"
def introducer_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Introducer) -> str:
1639    def introducer_sql(self, expression: exp.Introducer) -> str:
1640        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def kill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kill) -> str:
1642    def kill_sql(self, expression: exp.Kill) -> str:
1643        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1644        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
1645        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1646        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
1647        return f"KILL{kind}{this}"
def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PseudoType) -> str:
1649    def pseudotype_sql(self, expression: exp.PseudoType) -> str:
1650        return expression.name
def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1652    def objectidentifier_sql(self, expression: exp.ObjectIdentifier) -> str:
1653        return expression.name
def onconflict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnConflict) -> str:
1655    def onconflict_sql(self, expression: exp.OnConflict) -> str:
1656        conflict = "ON DUPLICATE KEY" if expression.args.get("duplicate") else "ON CONFLICT"
1657
1658        constraint = self.sql(expression, "constraint")
1659        constraint = f" ON CONSTRAINT {constraint}" if constraint else ""
1660
1661        conflict_keys = self.expressions(expression, key="conflict_keys", flat=True)
1662        conflict_keys = f"({conflict_keys}) " if conflict_keys else " "
1663        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
1664
1665        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1666        if expressions:
1667            set_keyword = "SET " if self.DUPLICATE_KEY_UPDATE_WITH_SET else ""
1668            expressions = f" {set_keyword}{expressions}"
1669
1670        return f"{conflict}{constraint}{conflict_keys}{action}{expressions}"
def returning_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Returning) -> str:
1672    def returning_sql(self, expression: exp.Returning) -> str:
1673        return f"{self.seg('RETURNING')} {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1675    def rowformatdelimitedproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.RowFormatDelimitedProperty) -> str:
1676        fields = self.sql(expression, "fields")
1677        fields = f" FIELDS TERMINATED BY {fields}" if fields else ""
1678        escaped = self.sql(expression, "escaped")
1679        escaped = f" ESCAPED BY {escaped}" if escaped else ""
1680        items = self.sql(expression, "collection_items")
1681        items = f" COLLECTION ITEMS TERMINATED BY {items}" if items else ""
1682        keys = self.sql(expression, "map_keys")
1683        keys = f" MAP KEYS TERMINATED BY {keys}" if keys else ""
1684        lines = self.sql(expression, "lines")
1685        lines = f" LINES TERMINATED BY {lines}" if lines else ""
1686        null = self.sql(expression, "null")
1687        null = f" NULL DEFINED AS {null}" if null else ""
1688        return f"ROW FORMAT DELIMITED{fields}{escaped}{items}{keys}{lines}{null}"
def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithTableHint) -> str:
1690    def withtablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.WithTableHint) -> str:
1691        return f"WITH ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1693    def indextablehint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexTableHint) -> str:
1694        this = f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} INDEX"
1695        target = self.sql(expression, "target")
1696        target = f" FOR {target}" if target else ""
1697        return f"{this}{target} ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HistoricalData) -> str:
1699    def historicaldata_sql(self, expression: exp.HistoricalData) -> str:
1700        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1701        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
1702        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1703        return f"{this} ({kind} => {expr})"
def table_parts(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table) -> str:
1705    def table_parts(self, expression: exp.Table) -> str:
1706        return ".".join(
1707            self.sql(part)
1708            for part in (
1709                expression.args.get("catalog"),
1710                expression.args.get("db"),
1711                expression.args.get("this"),
1712            )
1713            if part is not None
1714        )
def table_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Table, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
1716    def table_sql(self, expression: exp.Table, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
1717        table = self.table_parts(expression)
1718        only = "ONLY " if expression.args.get("only") else ""
1719        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
1720        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
1721        version = self.sql(expression, "version")
1722        version = f" {version}" if version else ""
1723        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1724        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
1725        hints = self.expressions(expression, key="hints", sep=" ")
1726        hints = f" {hints}" if hints and self.TABLE_HINTS else ""
1727        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
1728        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
1729        joins = self.indent(
1730            self.expressions(expression, key="joins", sep="", flat=True), skip_first=True
1731        )
1732        laterals = self.expressions(expression, key="laterals", sep="")
1733
1734        file_format = self.sql(expression, "format")
1735        if file_format:
1736            pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
1737            pattern = f", PATTERN => {pattern}" if pattern else ""
1738            file_format = f" (FILE_FORMAT => {file_format}{pattern})"
1739
1740        ordinality = expression.args.get("ordinality") or ""
1741        if ordinality:
1742            ordinality = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}"
1743            alias = ""
1744
1745        when = self.sql(expression, "when")
1746        if when:
1747            table = f"{table} {when}"
1748
1749        return f"{only}{table}{partition}{version}{file_format}{alias}{hints}{pivots}{joins}{laterals}{ordinality}"
def tablesample_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TableSample, sep: str = ' AS ', tablesample_keyword: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
1751    def tablesample_sql(
1752        self,
1753        expression: exp.TableSample,
1754        sep: str = " AS ",
1755        tablesample_keyword: t.Optional[str] = None,
1756    ) -> str:
1757        if self.dialect.ALIAS_POST_TABLESAMPLE and expression.this and expression.this.alias:
1758            table = expression.this.copy()
1759            table.set("alias", None)
1760            this = self.sql(table)
1761            alias = f"{sep}{self.sql(expression.this, 'alias')}"
1762        else:
1763            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1764            alias = ""
1765
1766        method = self.sql(expression, "method")
1767        method = f"{method} " if method and self.TABLESAMPLE_WITH_METHOD else ""
1768        numerator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_numerator")
1769        denominator = self.sql(expression, "bucket_denominator")
1770        field = self.sql(expression, "bucket_field")
1771        field = f" ON {field}" if field else ""
1772        bucket = f"BUCKET {numerator} OUT OF {denominator}{field}" if numerator else ""
1773        seed = self.sql(expression, "seed")
1774        seed = f" {self.TABLESAMPLE_SEED_KEYWORD} ({seed})" if seed else ""
1775
1776        size = self.sql(expression, "size")
1777        if size and self.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_ROWS:
1778            size = f"{size} ROWS"
1779
1780        percent = self.sql(expression, "percent")
1781        if percent and not self.dialect.TABLESAMPLE_SIZE_IS_PERCENT:
1782            percent = f"{percent} PERCENT"
1783
1784        expr = f"{bucket}{percent}{size}"
1785        if self.TABLESAMPLE_REQUIRES_PARENS:
1786            expr = f"({expr})"
1787
1788        return (
1789            f"{this} {tablesample_keyword or self.TABLESAMPLE_KEYWORDS} {method}{expr}{seed}{alias}"
1790        )
def pivot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pivot) -> str:
1792    def pivot_sql(self, expression: exp.Pivot) -> str:
1793        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1794
1795        if expression.this:
1796            this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1797            if not expressions:
1798                return f"UNPIVOT {this}"
1799
1800            on = f"{self.seg('ON')} {expressions}"
1801            using = self.expressions(expression, key="using", flat=True)
1802            using = f"{self.seg('USING')} {using}" if using else ""
1803            group = self.sql(expression, "group")
1804            return f"PIVOT {this}{on}{using}{group}"
1805
1806        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1807        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
1808        direction = "UNPIVOT" if expression.unpivot else "PIVOT"
1809        field = self.sql(expression, "field")
1810        include_nulls = expression.args.get("include_nulls")
1811        if include_nulls is not None:
1812            nulls = " INCLUDE NULLS " if include_nulls else " EXCLUDE NULLS "
1813        else:
1814            nulls = ""
1815        return f"{direction}{nulls}({expressions} FOR {field}){alias}"
def version_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Version) -> str:
1817    def version_sql(self, expression: exp.Version) -> str:
1818        this = f"FOR {expression.name}"
1819        kind = expression.text("kind")
1820        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
1821        return f"{this} {kind} {expr}"
def tuple_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tuple) -> str:
1823    def tuple_sql(self, expression: exp.Tuple) -> str:
1824        return f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def update_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Update) -> str:
1826    def update_sql(self, expression: exp.Update) -> str:
1827        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
1828        set_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
1829        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
1830        where_sql = self.sql(expression, "where")
1831        returning = self.sql(expression, "returning")
1832        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
1833        limit = self.sql(expression, "limit")
1834        if self.RETURNING_END:
1835            expression_sql = f"{from_sql}{where_sql}{returning}"
1836        else:
1837            expression_sql = f"{returning}{from_sql}{where_sql}"
1838        sql = f"UPDATE {this} SET {set_sql}{expression_sql}{order}{limit}"
1839        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def values_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1841    def values_sql(self, expression: exp.Values, values_as_table: bool = True) -> str:
1842        values_as_table = values_as_table and self.VALUES_AS_TABLE
1843
1844        # The VALUES clause is still valid in an `INSERT INTO ..` statement, for example
1845        if values_as_table or not expression.find_ancestor(exp.From, exp.Join):
1846            args = self.expressions(expression)
1847            alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
1848            values = f"VALUES{self.seg('')}{args}"
1849            values = (
1850                f"({values})"
1851                if self.WRAP_DERIVED_VALUES and (alias or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.From))
1852                else values
1853            )
1854            return f"{values} AS {alias}" if alias else values
1855
1856        # Converts `VALUES...` expression into a series of select unions.
1857        alias_node = expression.args.get("alias")
1858        column_names = alias_node and alias_node.columns
1859
1860        selects: t.List[exp.Query] = []
1861
1862        for i, tup in enumerate(expression.expressions):
1863            row = tup.expressions
1864
1865            if i == 0 and column_names:
1866                row = [
1867                    exp.alias_(value, column_name) for value, column_name in zip(row, column_names)
1868                ]
1869
1870            selects.append(exp.Select(expressions=row))
1871
1872        if self.pretty:
1873            # This may result in poor performance for large-cardinality `VALUES` tables, due to
1874            # the deep nesting of the resulting exp.Unions. If this is a problem, either increase
1875            # `sys.setrecursionlimit` to avoid RecursionErrors, or don't set `pretty`.
1876            query = reduce(lambda x, y: exp.union(x, y, distinct=False, copy=False), selects)
1877            return self.subquery_sql(query.subquery(alias_node and alias_node.this, copy=False))
1878
1879        alias = f" AS {self.sql(alias_node, 'this')}" if alias_node else ""
1880        unions = " UNION ALL ".join(self.sql(select) for select in selects)
1881        return f"({unions}){alias}"
def var_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Var) -> str:
1883    def var_sql(self, expression: exp.Var) -> str:
1884        return self.sql(expression, "this")
def into_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Into) -> str:
1886    def into_sql(self, expression: exp.Into) -> str:
1887        temporary = " TEMPORARY" if expression.args.get("temporary") else ""
1888        unlogged = " UNLOGGED" if expression.args.get("unlogged") else ""
1889        return f"{self.seg('INTO')}{temporary or unlogged} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def from_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.From) -> str:
1891    def from_sql(self, expression: exp.From) -> str:
1892        return f"{self.seg('FROM')} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def group_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Group) -> str:
1894    def group_sql(self, expression: exp.Group) -> str:
1895        group_by_all = expression.args.get("all")
1896        if group_by_all is True:
1897            modifier = " ALL"
1898        elif group_by_all is False:
1899            modifier = " DISTINCT"
1900        else:
1901            modifier = ""
1902
1903        group_by = self.op_expressions(f"GROUP BY{modifier}", expression)
1904
1905        grouping_sets = self.expressions(expression, key="grouping_sets", indent=False)
1906        grouping_sets = (
1907            f"{self.seg('GROUPING SETS')} {self.wrap(grouping_sets)}" if grouping_sets else ""
1908        )
1909
1910        cube = expression.args.get("cube", [])
1911        if seq_get(cube, 0) is True:
1912            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH CUBE')}"
1913        else:
1914            cube_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="cube", indent=False)
1915            cube_sql = f"{self.seg('CUBE')} {self.wrap(cube_sql)}" if cube_sql else ""
1916
1917        rollup = expression.args.get("rollup", [])
1918        if seq_get(rollup, 0) is True:
1919            return f"{group_by}{self.seg('WITH ROLLUP')}"
1920        else:
1921            rollup_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="rollup", indent=False)
1922            rollup_sql = f"{self.seg('ROLLUP')} {self.wrap(rollup_sql)}" if rollup_sql else ""
1923
1924        groupings = csv(
1925            grouping_sets,
1926            cube_sql,
1927            rollup_sql,
1928            self.seg("WITH TOTALS") if expression.args.get("totals") else "",
1929            sep=self.GROUPINGS_SEP,
1930        )
1931
1932        if expression.args.get("expressions") and groupings:
1933            group_by = f"{group_by}{self.GROUPINGS_SEP}"
1934
1935        return f"{group_by}{groupings}"
def having_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Having) -> str:
1937    def having_sql(self, expression: exp.Having) -> str:
1938        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
1939        return f"{self.seg('HAVING')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def connect_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connect) -> str:
1941    def connect_sql(self, expression: exp.Connect) -> str:
1942        start = self.sql(expression, "start")
1943        start = self.seg(f"START WITH {start}") if start else ""
1944        nocycle = " NOCYCLE" if expression.args.get("nocycle") else ""
1945        connect = self.sql(expression, "connect")
1946        connect = self.seg(f"CONNECT BY{nocycle} {connect}")
1947        return start + connect
def prior_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Prior) -> str:
1949    def prior_sql(self, expression: exp.Prior) -> str:
1950        return f"PRIOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def join_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Join) -> str:
1952    def join_sql(self, expression: exp.Join) -> str:
1953        if not self.SEMI_ANTI_JOIN_WITH_SIDE and expression.kind in ("SEMI", "ANTI"):
1954            side = None
1955        else:
1956            side = expression.side
1957
1958        op_sql = " ".join(
1959            op
1960            for op in (
1961                expression.method,
1962                "GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("global") else None,
1963                side,
1964                expression.kind,
1965                expression.hint if self.JOIN_HINTS else None,
1966            )
1967            if op
1968        )
1969        match_cond = self.sql(expression, "match_condition")
1970        match_cond = f" MATCH_CONDITION ({match_cond})" if match_cond else ""
1971        on_sql = self.sql(expression, "on")
1972        using = expression.args.get("using")
1973
1974        if not on_sql and using:
1975            on_sql = csv(*(self.sql(column) for column in using))
1976
1977        this = expression.this
1978        this_sql = self.sql(this)
1979
1980        if on_sql:
1981            on_sql = self.indent(on_sql, skip_first=True)
1982            space = self.seg(" " * self.pad) if self.pretty else " "
1983            if using:
1984                on_sql = f"{space}USING ({on_sql})"
1985            else:
1986                on_sql = f"{space}ON {on_sql}"
1987        elif not op_sql:
1988            if isinstance(this, exp.Lateral) and this.args.get("cross_apply") is not None:
1989                return f" {this_sql}"
1990
1991            return f", {this_sql}"
1992
1993        if op_sql != "STRAIGHT_JOIN":
1994            op_sql = f"{op_sql} JOIN" if op_sql else "JOIN"
1995
1996        return f"{self.seg(op_sql)} {this_sql}{match_cond}{on_sql}"
def lambda_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = '->') -> str:
1998    def lambda_sql(self, expression: exp.Lambda, arrow_sep: str = "->") -> str:
1999        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2000        args = f"({args})" if len(args.split(",")) > 1 else args
2001        return f"{args} {arrow_sep} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lateral_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2003    def lateral_op(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2004        cross_apply = expression.args.get("cross_apply")
2005
2006        # https://www.mssqltips.com/sqlservertip/1958/sql-server-cross-apply-and-outer-apply/
2007        if cross_apply is True:
2008            op = "INNER JOIN "
2009        elif cross_apply is False:
2010            op = "LEFT JOIN "
2011        else:
2012            op = ""
2013
2014        return f"{op}LATERAL"
def lateral_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lateral) -> str:
2016    def lateral_sql(self, expression: exp.Lateral) -> str:
2017        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2018
2019        if expression.args.get("view"):
2020            alias = expression.args["alias"]
2021            columns = self.expressions(alias, key="columns", flat=True)
2022            table = f" {alias.name}" if alias.name else ""
2023            columns = f" AS {columns}" if columns else ""
2024            op_sql = self.seg(f"LATERAL VIEW{' OUTER' if expression.args.get('outer') else ''}")
2025            return f"{op_sql}{self.sep()}{this}{table}{columns}"
2026
2027        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2028        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2029        return f"{self.lateral_op(expression)} {this}{alias}"
def limit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2031    def limit_sql(self, expression: exp.Limit, top: bool = False) -> str:
2032        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2033
2034        args = [
2035            self._simplify_unless_literal(e) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else e
2036            for e in (expression.args.get(k) for k in ("offset", "expression"))
2037            if e
2038        ]
2039
2040        args_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in args)
2041        args_sql = f"({args_sql})" if top and any(not e.is_number for e in args) else args_sql
2042        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2043        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2044
2045        return f"{this}{self.seg('TOP' if top else 'LIMIT')} {args_sql}{expressions}"
def offset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Offset) -> str:
2047    def offset_sql(self, expression: exp.Offset) -> str:
2048        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2049        value = expression.expression
2050        value = self._simplify_unless_literal(value) if self.LIMIT_ONLY_LITERALS else value
2051        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2052        expressions = f" BY {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2053        return f"{this}{self.seg('OFFSET')} {self.sql(value)}{expressions}"
def setitem_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetItem) -> str:
2055    def setitem_sql(self, expression: exp.SetItem) -> str:
2056        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2057        kind = f"{kind} " if kind else ""
2058        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2059        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2060        collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
2061        collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
2062        global_ = "GLOBAL " if expression.args.get("global") else ""
2063        return f"{global_}{kind}{this}{expressions}{collate}"
def set_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Set) -> str:
2065    def set_sql(self, expression: exp.Set) -> str:
2066        expressions = (
2067            f" {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}" if expression.expressions else ""
2068        )
2069        tag = " TAG" if expression.args.get("tag") else ""
2070        return f"{'UNSET' if expression.args.get('unset') else 'SET'}{tag}{expressions}"
def pragma_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Pragma) -> str:
2072    def pragma_sql(self, expression: exp.Pragma) -> str:
2073        return f"PRAGMA {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def lock_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Lock) -> str:
2075    def lock_sql(self, expression: exp.Lock) -> str:
2076        if not self.LOCKING_READS_SUPPORTED:
2077            self.unsupported("Locking reads using 'FOR UPDATE/SHARE' are not supported")
2078            return ""
2079
2080        lock_type = "FOR UPDATE" if expression.args["update"] else "FOR SHARE"
2081        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2082        expressions = f" OF {expressions}" if expressions else ""
2083        wait = expression.args.get("wait")
2084
2085        if wait is not None:
2086            if isinstance(wait, exp.Literal):
2087                wait = f" WAIT {self.sql(wait)}"
2088            else:
2089                wait = " NOWAIT" if wait else " SKIP LOCKED"
2090
2091        return f"{lock_type}{expressions}{wait or ''}"
def literal_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Literal) -> str:
2093    def literal_sql(self, expression: exp.Literal) -> str:
2094        text = expression.this or ""
2095        if expression.is_string:
2096            text = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{self.escape_str(text)}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2097        return text
def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2099    def escape_str(self, text: str, escape_backslash: bool = True) -> str:
2100        if self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES:
2101            to_escaped = self.dialect.ESCAPED_SEQUENCES
2102            text = "".join(
2103                to_escaped.get(ch, ch) if escape_backslash or ch != "\\" else ch for ch in text
2104            )
2105
2106        return self._replace_line_breaks(text).replace(
2107            self.dialect.QUOTE_END, self._escaped_quote_end
2108        )
def loaddata_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LoadData) -> str:
2110    def loaddata_sql(self, expression: exp.LoadData) -> str:
2111        local = " LOCAL" if expression.args.get("local") else ""
2112        inpath = f" INPATH {self.sql(expression, 'inpath')}"
2113        overwrite = " OVERWRITE" if expression.args.get("overwrite") else ""
2114        this = f" INTO TABLE {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
2115        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
2116        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
2117        input_format = self.sql(expression, "input_format")
2118        input_format = f" INPUTFORMAT {input_format}" if input_format else ""
2119        serde = self.sql(expression, "serde")
2120        serde = f" SERDE {serde}" if serde else ""
2121        return f"LOAD DATA{local}{inpath}{overwrite}{this}{partition}{input_format}{serde}"
def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2123    def null_sql(self, *_) -> str:
2124        return "NULL"
def boolean_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Boolean) -> str:
2126    def boolean_sql(self, expression: exp.Boolean) -> str:
2127        return "TRUE" if expression.this else "FALSE"
def order_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2129    def order_sql(self, expression: exp.Order, flat: bool = False) -> str:
2130        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2131        this = f"{this} " if this else this
2132        siblings = "SIBLINGS " if expression.args.get("siblings") else ""
2133        order = self.op_expressions(f"{this}ORDER {siblings}BY", expression, flat=this or flat)  # type: ignore
2134        interpolated_values = [
2135            f"{self.sql(named_expression, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(named_expression, 'this')}"
2136            for named_expression in expression.args.get("interpolate") or []
2137        ]
2138        interpolate = (
2139            f" INTERPOLATE ({', '.join(interpolated_values)})" if interpolated_values else ""
2140        )
2141        return f"{order}{interpolate}"
def withfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithFill) -> str:
2143    def withfill_sql(self, expression: exp.WithFill) -> str:
2144        from_sql = self.sql(expression, "from")
2145        from_sql = f" FROM {from_sql}" if from_sql else ""
2146        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2147        to_sql = f" TO {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2148        step_sql = self.sql(expression, "step")
2149        step_sql = f" STEP {step_sql}" if step_sql else ""
2150        return f"WITH FILL{from_sql}{to_sql}{step_sql}"
def cluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cluster) -> str:
2152    def cluster_sql(self, expression: exp.Cluster) -> str:
2153        return self.op_expressions("CLUSTER BY", expression)
def distribute_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distribute) -> str:
2155    def distribute_sql(self, expression: exp.Distribute) -> str:
2156        return self.op_expressions("DISTRIBUTE BY", expression)
def sort_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sort) -> str:
2158    def sort_sql(self, expression: exp.Sort) -> str:
2159        return self.op_expressions("SORT BY", expression)
def ordered_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Ordered) -> str:
2161    def ordered_sql(self, expression: exp.Ordered) -> str:
2162        desc = expression.args.get("desc")
2163        asc = not desc
2164
2165        nulls_first = expression.args.get("nulls_first")
2166        nulls_last = not nulls_first
2167        nulls_are_large = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_large"
2168        nulls_are_small = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_small"
2169        nulls_are_last = self.dialect.NULL_ORDERING == "nulls_are_last"
2170
2171        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2172
2173        sort_order = " DESC" if desc else (" ASC" if desc is False else "")
2174        nulls_sort_change = ""
2175        if nulls_first and (
2176            (asc and nulls_are_large) or (desc and nulls_are_small) or nulls_are_last
2177        ):
2178            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS FIRST"
2179        elif (
2180            nulls_last
2181            and ((asc and nulls_are_small) or (desc and nulls_are_large))
2182            and not nulls_are_last
2183        ):
2184            nulls_sort_change = " NULLS LAST"
2185
2186        # If the NULLS FIRST/LAST clause is unsupported, we add another sort key to simulate it
2187        if nulls_sort_change and not self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED:
2188            window = expression.find_ancestor(exp.Window, exp.Select)
2189            if isinstance(window, exp.Window) and window.args.get("spec"):
2190                self.unsupported(
2191                    f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported in window functions"
2192                )
2193                nulls_sort_change = ""
2194            elif self.NULL_ORDERING_SUPPORTED is None:
2195                if expression.this.is_int:
2196                    self.unsupported(
2197                        f"'{nulls_sort_change.strip()}' translation not supported with positional ordering"
2198                    )
2199                elif not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Rand):
2200                    null_sort_order = " DESC" if nulls_sort_change == " NULLS FIRST" else ""
2201                    this = f"CASE WHEN {this} IS NULL THEN 1 ELSE 0 END{null_sort_order}, {this}"
2202                nulls_sort_change = ""
2203
2204        with_fill = self.sql(expression, "with_fill")
2205        with_fill = f" {with_fill}" if with_fill else ""
2206
2207        return f"{this}{sort_order}{nulls_sort_change}{with_fill}"
def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2209    def matchrecognizemeasure_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognizeMeasure) -> str:
2210        window_frame = self.sql(expression, "window_frame")
2211        window_frame = f"{window_frame} " if window_frame else ""
2212
2213        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2214
2215        return f"{window_frame}{this}"
def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2217    def matchrecognize_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2218        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2219        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2220        measures = self.expressions(expression, key="measures")
2221        measures = self.seg(f"MEASURES{self.seg(measures)}") if measures else ""
2222        rows = self.sql(expression, "rows")
2223        rows = self.seg(rows) if rows else ""
2224        after = self.sql(expression, "after")
2225        after = self.seg(after) if after else ""
2226        pattern = self.sql(expression, "pattern")
2227        pattern = self.seg(f"PATTERN ({pattern})") if pattern else ""
2228        definition_sqls = [
2229            f"{self.sql(definition, 'alias')} AS {self.sql(definition, 'this')}"
2230            for definition in expression.args.get("define", [])
2231        ]
2232        definitions = self.expressions(sqls=definition_sqls)
2233        define = self.seg(f"DEFINE{self.seg(definitions)}") if definitions else ""
2234        body = "".join(
2235            (
2236                partition,
2237                order,
2238                measures,
2239                rows,
2240                after,
2241                pattern,
2242                define,
2243            )
2244        )
2245        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2246        alias = f" {alias}" if alias else ""
2247        return f"{self.seg('MATCH_RECOGNIZE')} {self.wrap(body)}{alias}"
def query_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2249    def query_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression, *sqls: str) -> str:
2250        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2251
2252        if self.LIMIT_FETCH == "LIMIT" and isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch):
2253            limit = exp.Limit(expression=exp.maybe_copy(limit.args.get("count")))
2254        elif self.LIMIT_FETCH == "FETCH" and isinstance(limit, exp.Limit):
2255            limit = exp.Fetch(direction="FIRST", count=exp.maybe_copy(limit.expression))
2256
2257        return csv(
2258            *sqls,
2259            *[self.sql(join) for join in expression.args.get("joins") or []],
2260            self.sql(expression, "connect"),
2261            self.sql(expression, "match"),
2262            *[self.sql(lateral) for lateral in expression.args.get("laterals") or []],
2263            self.sql(expression, "prewhere"),
2264            self.sql(expression, "where"),
2265            self.sql(expression, "group"),
2266            self.sql(expression, "having"),
2267            *[gen(self, expression) for gen in self.AFTER_HAVING_MODIFIER_TRANSFORMS.values()],
2268            self.sql(expression, "order"),
2269            *self.offset_limit_modifiers(expression, isinstance(limit, exp.Fetch), limit),
2270            *self.after_limit_modifiers(expression),
2271            self.options_modifier(expression),
2272            sep="",
2273        )
def options_modifier(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> str:
2275    def options_modifier(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> str:
2276        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
2277        return f" {options}" if options else ""
def queryoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryOption) -> str:
2279    def queryoption_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryOption) -> str:
2280        return ""
def offset_limit_modifiers( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: Union[sqlglot.expressions.Fetch, sqlglot.expressions.Limit, NoneType]) -> List[str]:
2282    def offset_limit_modifiers(
2283        self, expression: exp.Expression, fetch: bool, limit: t.Optional[exp.Fetch | exp.Limit]
2284    ) -> t.List[str]:
2285        return [
2286            self.sql(expression, "offset") if fetch else self.sql(limit),
2287            self.sql(limit) if fetch else self.sql(expression, "offset"),
2288        ]
def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression) -> List[str]:
2290    def after_limit_modifiers(self, expression: exp.Expression) -> t.List[str]:
2291        locks = self.expressions(expression, key="locks", sep=" ")
2292        locks = f" {locks}" if locks else ""
2293        return [locks, self.sql(expression, "sample")]
def select_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Select) -> str:
2295    def select_sql(self, expression: exp.Select) -> str:
2296        into = expression.args.get("into")
2297        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2298            into.pop()
2299
2300        hint = self.sql(expression, "hint")
2301        distinct = self.sql(expression, "distinct")
2302        distinct = f" {distinct}" if distinct else ""
2303        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2304
2305        limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2306        if isinstance(limit, exp.Limit) and self.LIMIT_IS_TOP:
2307            top = self.limit_sql(limit, top=True)
2308            limit.pop()
2309        else:
2310            top = ""
2311
2312        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2313
2314        if kind:
2315            if kind in self.SELECT_KINDS:
2316                kind = f" AS {kind}"
2317            else:
2318                if kind == "STRUCT":
2319                    expressions = self.expressions(
2320                        sqls=[
2321                            self.sql(
2322                                exp.Struct(
2323                                    expressions=[
2324                                        exp.PropertyEQ(this=e.args.get("alias"), expression=e.this)
2325                                        if isinstance(e, exp.Alias)
2326                                        else e
2327                                        for e in expression.expressions
2328                                    ]
2329                                )
2330                            )
2331                        ]
2332                    )
2333                kind = ""
2334
2335        # We use LIMIT_IS_TOP as a proxy for whether DISTINCT should go first because tsql and Teradata
2336        # are the only dialects that use LIMIT_IS_TOP and both place DISTINCT first.
2337        top_distinct = f"{distinct}{hint}{top}" if self.LIMIT_IS_TOP else f"{top}{hint}{distinct}"
2338        expressions = f"{self.sep()}{expressions}" if expressions else expressions
2339        sql = self.query_modifiers(
2340            expression,
2341            f"SELECT{top_distinct}{kind}{expressions}",
2342            self.sql(expression, "into", comment=False),
2343            self.sql(expression, "from", comment=False),
2344        )
2345
2346        sql = self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
2347
2348        if not self.SUPPORTS_SELECT_INTO and into:
2349            if into.args.get("temporary"):
2350                table_kind = " TEMPORARY"
2351            elif self.SUPPORTS_UNLOGGED_TABLES and into.args.get("unlogged"):
2352                table_kind = " UNLOGGED"
2353            else:
2354                table_kind = ""
2355            sql = f"CREATE{table_kind} TABLE {self.sql(into.this)} AS {sql}"
2356
2357        return sql
def schema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2359    def schema_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2360        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2361        sql = self.schema_columns_sql(expression)
2362        return f"{this} {sql}" if this and sql else this or sql
def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Schema) -> str:
2364    def schema_columns_sql(self, expression: exp.Schema) -> str:
2365        if expression.expressions:
2366            return f"({self.sep('')}{self.expressions(expression)}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2367        return ""
def star_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Star) -> str:
2369    def star_sql(self, expression: exp.Star) -> str:
2370        except_ = self.expressions(expression, key="except", flat=True)
2371        except_ = f"{self.seg(self.STAR_EXCEPT)} ({except_})" if except_ else ""
2372        replace = self.expressions(expression, key="replace", flat=True)
2373        replace = f"{self.seg('REPLACE')} ({replace})" if replace else ""
2374        rename = self.expressions(expression, key="rename", flat=True)
2375        rename = f"{self.seg('RENAME')} ({rename})" if rename else ""
2376        return f"*{except_}{replace}{rename}"
def parameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Parameter) -> str:
2378    def parameter_sql(self, expression: exp.Parameter) -> str:
2379        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2380        return f"{self.PARAMETER_TOKEN}{this}"
def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SessionParameter) -> str:
2382    def sessionparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.SessionParameter) -> str:
2383        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2384        kind = expression.text("kind")
2385        if kind:
2386            kind = f"{kind}."
2387        return f"@@{kind}{this}"
def placeholder_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Placeholder) -> str:
2389    def placeholder_sql(self, expression: exp.Placeholder) -> str:
2390        return f"{self.NAMED_PLACEHOLDER_TOKEN}{expression.name}" if expression.this else "?"
def subquery_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Subquery, sep: str = ' AS ') -> str:
2392    def subquery_sql(self, expression: exp.Subquery, sep: str = " AS ") -> str:
2393        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2394        alias = f"{sep}{alias}" if alias else ""
2395
2396        pivots = self.expressions(expression, key="pivots", sep=" ", flat=True)
2397        pivots = f" {pivots}" if pivots else ""
2398
2399        sql = self.query_modifiers(expression, self.wrap(expression), alias, pivots)
2400        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, sql)
def qualify_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Qualify) -> str:
2402    def qualify_sql(self, expression: exp.Qualify) -> str:
2403        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2404        return f"{self.seg('QUALIFY')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def set_operations(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
2406    def set_operations(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2407        if not self.SET_OP_MODIFIERS:
2408            limit = expression.args.get("limit")
2409            order = expression.args.get("order")
2410
2411            if limit or order:
2412                select = exp.subquery(expression, "_l_0", copy=False).select("*", copy=False)
2413
2414                if limit:
2415                    select = select.limit(limit.pop(), copy=False)
2416                if order:
2417                    select = select.order_by(order.pop(), copy=False)
2418                return self.sql(select)
2419
2420        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2421        stack: t.List[t.Union[str, exp.Expression]] = [expression]
2422
2423        while stack:
2424            node = stack.pop()
2425
2426            if isinstance(node, exp.SetOperation):
2427                stack.append(node.expression)
2428                stack.append(
2429                    self.maybe_comment(
2430                        getattr(self, f"{node.key}_op")(node),
2431                        comments=node.comments,
2432                        separated=True,
2433                    )
2434                )
2435                stack.append(node.this)
2436            else:
2437                sqls.append(self.sql(node))
2438
2439        this = self.sep().join(sqls)
2440        this = self.query_modifiers(expression, this)
2441        return self.prepend_ctes(expression, this)
def union_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Union) -> str:
2443    def union_sql(self, expression: exp.Union) -> str:
2444        return self.set_operations(expression)
def union_op(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SetOperation) -> str:
2446    def union_op(self, expression: exp.SetOperation) -> str:
2447        kind = " DISTINCT" if self.EXPLICIT_SET_OP else ""
2448        kind = kind if expression.args.get("distinct") else " ALL"
2449        by_name = " BY NAME" if expression.args.get("by_name") else ""
2450        return f"UNION{kind}{by_name}"
def unnest_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2452    def unnest_sql(self, expression: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2453        args = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2454
2455        alias = expression.args.get("alias")
2456        offset = expression.args.get("offset")
2457
2458        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2459            if alias and isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2460                alias.append("columns", offset)
2461
2462        if alias and self.dialect.UNNEST_COLUMN_ONLY:
2463            columns = alias.columns
2464            alias = self.sql(columns[0]) if columns else ""
2465        else:
2466            alias = self.sql(alias)
2467
2468        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else alias
2469        if self.UNNEST_WITH_ORDINALITY:
2470            suffix = f" WITH ORDINALITY{alias}" if offset else alias
2471        else:
2472            if isinstance(offset, exp.Expression):
2473                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET AS {self.sql(offset)}"
2474            elif offset:
2475                suffix = f"{alias} WITH OFFSET"
2476            else:
2477                suffix = alias
2478
2479        return f"UNNEST({args}){suffix}"
def prewhere_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PreWhere) -> str:
2481    def prewhere_sql(self, expression: exp.PreWhere) -> str:
2482        return ""
def where_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Where) -> str:
2484    def where_sql(self, expression: exp.Where) -> str:
2485        this = self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this"))
2486        return f"{self.seg('WHERE')}{self.sep()}{this}"
def window_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window) -> str:
2488    def window_sql(self, expression: exp.Window) -> str:
2489        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2490        partition = self.partition_by_sql(expression)
2491        order = expression.args.get("order")
2492        order = self.order_sql(order, flat=True) if order else ""
2493        spec = self.sql(expression, "spec")
2494        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2495        over = self.sql(expression, "over") or "OVER"
2496
2497        this = f"{this} {'AS' if expression.arg_key == 'windows' else over}"
2498
2499        first = expression.args.get("first")
2500        if first is None:
2501            first = ""
2502        else:
2503            first = "FIRST" if first else "LAST"
2504
2505        if not partition and not order and not spec and alias:
2506            return f"{this} {alias}"
2507
2508        args = " ".join(arg for arg in (alias, first, partition, order, spec) if arg)
2509        return f"{this} ({args})"
def partition_by_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Window | sqlglot.expressions.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2511    def partition_by_sql(self, expression: exp.Window | exp.MatchRecognize) -> str:
2512        partition = self.expressions(expression, key="partition_by", flat=True)
2513        return f"PARTITION BY {partition}" if partition else ""
def windowspec_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WindowSpec) -> str:
2515    def windowspec_sql(self, expression: exp.WindowSpec) -> str:
2516        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2517        start = csv(self.sql(expression, "start"), self.sql(expression, "start_side"), sep=" ")
2518        end = (
2519            csv(self.sql(expression, "end"), self.sql(expression, "end_side"), sep=" ")
2520            or "CURRENT ROW"
2521        )
2522        return f"{kind} BETWEEN {start} AND {end}"
def withingroup_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.WithinGroup) -> str:
2524    def withingroup_sql(self, expression: exp.WithinGroup) -> str:
2525        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2526        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")[1:]  # order has a leading space
2527        return f"{this} WITHIN GROUP ({expression_sql})"
def between_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Between) -> str:
2529    def between_sql(self, expression: exp.Between) -> str:
2530        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2531        low = self.sql(expression, "low")
2532        high = self.sql(expression, "high")
2533        return f"{this} BETWEEN {low} AND {high}"
def bracket_offset_expressions( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2535    def bracket_offset_expressions(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2536        return apply_index_offset(
2537            expression.this,
2538            expression.expressions,
2539            self.dialect.INDEX_OFFSET - expression.args.get("offset", 0),
2540        )
def bracket_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Bracket) -> str:
2542    def bracket_sql(self, expression: exp.Bracket) -> str:
2543        expressions = self.bracket_offset_expressions(expression)
2544        expressions_sql = ", ".join(self.sql(e) for e in expressions)
2545        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}[{expressions_sql}]"
def all_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.All) -> str:
2547    def all_sql(self, expression: exp.All) -> str:
2548        return f"ALL {self.wrap(expression)}"
def any_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Any) -> str:
2550    def any_sql(self, expression: exp.Any) -> str:
2551        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2552        if isinstance(expression.this, (*exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES, exp.Paren)):
2553            if isinstance(expression.this, exp.UNWRAPPED_QUERIES):
2554                this = self.wrap(this)
2555            return f"ANY{this}"
2556        return f"ANY {this}"
def exists_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Exists) -> str:
2558    def exists_sql(self, expression: exp.Exists) -> str:
2559        return f"EXISTS{self.wrap(expression)}"
def case_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Case) -> str:
2561    def case_sql(self, expression: exp.Case) -> str:
2562        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2563        statements = [f"CASE {this}" if this else "CASE"]
2564
2565        for e in expression.args["ifs"]:
2566            statements.append(f"WHEN {self.sql(e, 'this')}")
2567            statements.append(f"THEN {self.sql(e, 'true')}")
2568
2569        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
2570
2571        if default:
2572            statements.append(f"ELSE {default}")
2573
2574        statements.append("END")
2575
2576        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(statements):
2577            return self.indent("\n".join(statements), skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
2578
2579        return " ".join(statements)
def constraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Constraint) -> str:
2581    def constraint_sql(self, expression: exp.Constraint) -> str:
2582        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2583        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2584        return f"CONSTRAINT {this} {expressions}"
def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NextValueFor) -> str:
2586    def nextvaluefor_sql(self, expression: exp.NextValueFor) -> str:
2587        order = expression.args.get("order")
2588        order = f" OVER ({self.order_sql(order, flat=True)})" if order else ""
2589        return f"NEXT VALUE FOR {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{order}"
def extract_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Extract) -> str:
2591    def extract_sql(self, expression: exp.Extract) -> str:
2592        this = self.sql(expression, "this") if self.EXTRACT_ALLOWS_QUOTES else expression.this.name
2593        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2594        return f"EXTRACT({this} FROM {expression_sql})"
def trim_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Trim) -> str:
2596    def trim_sql(self, expression: exp.Trim) -> str:
2597        trim_type = self.sql(expression, "position")
2598
2599        if trim_type == "LEADING":
2600            return self.func("LTRIM", expression.this)
2601        elif trim_type == "TRAILING":
2602            return self.func("RTRIM", expression.this)
2603        else:
2604            return self.func("TRIM", expression.this, expression.expression)
def convert_concat_args( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat | sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> List[sqlglot.expressions.Expression]:
2606    def convert_concat_args(self, expression: exp.Concat | exp.ConcatWs) -> t.List[exp.Expression]:
2607        args = expression.expressions
2608        if isinstance(expression, exp.ConcatWs):
2609            args = args[1:]  # Skip the delimiter
2610
2611        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
2612            args = [exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in args]
2613
2614        if not self.dialect.CONCAT_COALESCE and expression.args.get("coalesce"):
2615            args = [exp.func("coalesce", e, exp.Literal.string("")) for e in args]
2616
2617        return args
def concat_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Concat) -> str:
2619    def concat_sql(self, expression: exp.Concat) -> str:
2620        expressions = self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2621
2622        # Some dialects don't allow a single-argument CONCAT call
2623        if not self.SUPPORTS_SINGLE_ARG_CONCAT and len(expressions) == 1:
2624            return self.sql(expressions[0])
2625
2626        return self.func("CONCAT", *expressions)
def concatws_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ConcatWs) -> str:
2628    def concatws_sql(self, expression: exp.ConcatWs) -> str:
2629        return self.func(
2630            "CONCAT_WS", seq_get(expression.expressions, 0), *self.convert_concat_args(expression)
2631        )
def check_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Check) -> str:
2633    def check_sql(self, expression: exp.Check) -> str:
2634        this = self.sql(expression, key="this")
2635        return f"CHECK ({this})"
def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2637    def foreignkey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2638        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2639        reference = self.sql(expression, "reference")
2640        reference = f" {reference}" if reference else ""
2641        delete = self.sql(expression, "delete")
2642        delete = f" ON DELETE {delete}" if delete else ""
2643        update = self.sql(expression, "update")
2644        update = f" ON UPDATE {update}" if update else ""
2645        return f"FOREIGN KEY ({expressions}){reference}{delete}{update}"
def primarykey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForeignKey) -> str:
2647    def primarykey_sql(self, expression: exp.ForeignKey) -> str:
2648        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2649        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2650        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2651        return f"PRIMARY KEY ({expressions}){options}"
def if_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.If) -> str:
2653    def if_sql(self, expression: exp.If) -> str:
2654        return self.case_sql(exp.Case(ifs=[expression], default=expression.args.get("false")))
def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2656    def matchagainst_sql(self, expression: exp.MatchAgainst) -> str:
2657        modifier = expression.args.get("modifier")
2658        modifier = f" {modifier}" if modifier else ""
2659        return f"{self.func('MATCH', *expression.expressions)} AGAINST({self.sql(expression, 'this')}{modifier})"
def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2661    def jsonkeyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONKeyValue) -> str:
2662        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{self.JSON_KEY_VALUE_PAIR_SEP} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONPath) -> str:
2664    def jsonpath_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONPath) -> str:
2665        path = self.expressions(expression, sep="", flat=True).lstrip(".")
2666        if self.QUOTE_JSON_PATH:
2667            path = f"{self.dialect.QUOTE_START}{path}{self.dialect.QUOTE_END}"
2668
2669        return path
def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | sqlglot.expressions.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2671    def json_path_part(self, expression: int | str | exp.JSONPathPart) -> str:
2672        if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONPathPart):
2673            transform = self.TRANSFORMS.get(expression.__class__)
2674            if not callable(transform):
2675                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported JSONPathPart type {expression.__class__.__name__}")
2676                return ""
2677
2678            return transform(self, expression)
2679
2680        if isinstance(expression, int):
2681            return str(expression)
2682
2683        if self.JSON_PATH_SINGLE_QUOTE_ESCAPE:
2684            escaped = expression.replace("'", "\\'")
2685            escaped = f"\\'{expression}\\'"
2686        else:
2687            escaped = expression.replace('"', '\\"')
2688            escaped = f'"{escaped}"'
2689
2690        return escaped
def formatjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FormatJson) -> str:
2692    def formatjson_sql(self, expression: exp.FormatJson) -> str:
2693        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} FORMAT JSON"
def jsonobject_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObject | sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2695    def jsonobject_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObject | exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2696        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2697        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2698
2699        unique_keys = expression.args.get("unique_keys")
2700        if unique_keys is not None:
2701            unique_keys = f" {'WITH' if unique_keys else 'WITHOUT'} UNIQUE KEYS"
2702        else:
2703            unique_keys = ""
2704
2705        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2706        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2707        encoding = self.sql(expression, "encoding")
2708        encoding = f" ENCODING {encoding}" if encoding else ""
2709
2710        return self.func(
2711            "JSON_OBJECT" if isinstance(expression, exp.JSONObject) else "JSON_OBJECTAGG",
2712            *expression.expressions,
2713            suffix=f"{null_handling}{unique_keys}{return_type}{encoding})",
2714        )
def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2716    def jsonobjectagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONObjectAgg) -> str:
2717        return self.jsonobject_sql(expression)
def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArray) -> str:
2719    def jsonarray_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArray) -> str:
2720        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2721        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2722        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2723        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2724        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2725        return self.func(
2726            "JSON_ARRAY", *expression.expressions, suffix=f"{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})"
2727        )
def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2729    def jsonarrayagg_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONArrayAgg) -> str:
2730        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2731        order = self.sql(expression, "order")
2732        null_handling = expression.args.get("null_handling")
2733        null_handling = f" {null_handling}" if null_handling else ""
2734        return_type = self.sql(expression, "return_type")
2735        return_type = f" RETURNING {return_type}" if return_type else ""
2736        strict = " STRICT" if expression.args.get("strict") else ""
2737        return self.func(
2738            "JSON_ARRAYAGG",
2739            this,
2740            suffix=f"{order}{null_handling}{return_type}{strict})",
2741        )
def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2743    def jsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONColumnDef) -> str:
2744        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2745        path = f" PATH {path}" if path else ""
2746        nested_schema = self.sql(expression, "nested_schema")
2747
2748        if nested_schema:
2749            return f"NESTED{path} {nested_schema}"
2750
2751        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2752        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2753        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
2754        return f"{this}{kind}{path}"
def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONSchema) -> str:
2756    def jsonschema_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONSchema) -> str:
2757        return self.func("COLUMNS", *expression.expressions)
def jsontable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JSONTable) -> str:
2759    def jsontable_sql(self, expression: exp.JSONTable) -> str:
2760        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2761        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2762        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2763        error_handling = expression.args.get("error_handling")
2764        error_handling = f" {error_handling}" if error_handling else ""
2765        empty_handling = expression.args.get("empty_handling")
2766        empty_handling = f" {empty_handling}" if empty_handling else ""
2767        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
2768        return self.func(
2769            "JSON_TABLE", this, suffix=f"{path}{error_handling}{empty_handling} {schema})"
2770        )
def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2772    def openjsoncolumndef_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSONColumnDef) -> str:
2773        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2774        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
2775        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2776        path = f" {path}" if path else ""
2777        as_json = " AS JSON" if expression.args.get("as_json") else ""
2778        return f"{this} {kind}{path}{as_json}"
def openjson_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OpenJSON) -> str:
2780    def openjson_sql(self, expression: exp.OpenJSON) -> str:
2781        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2782        path = self.sql(expression, "path")
2783        path = f", {path}" if path else ""
2784        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
2785        with_ = (
2786            f" WITH ({self.seg(self.indent(expressions), sep='')}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
2787            if expressions
2788            else ""
2789        )
2790        return f"OPENJSON({this}{path}){with_}"
def in_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.In) -> str:
2792    def in_sql(self, expression: exp.In) -> str:
2793        query = expression.args.get("query")
2794        unnest = expression.args.get("unnest")
2795        field = expression.args.get("field")
2796        is_global = " GLOBAL" if expression.args.get("is_global") else ""
2797
2798        if query:
2799            in_sql = self.sql(query)
2800        elif unnest:
2801            in_sql = self.in_unnest_op(unnest)
2802        elif field:
2803            in_sql = self.sql(field)
2804        else:
2805            in_sql = f"({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
2806
2807        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{is_global} IN {in_sql}"
def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: sqlglot.expressions.Unnest) -> str:
2809    def in_unnest_op(self, unnest: exp.Unnest) -> str:
2810        return f"(SELECT {self.sql(unnest)})"
def interval_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Interval) -> str:
2812    def interval_sql(self, expression: exp.Interval) -> str:
2813        unit = self.sql(expression, "unit")
2814        if not self.INTERVAL_ALLOWS_PLURAL_FORM:
2815            unit = self.TIME_PART_SINGULARS.get(unit, unit)
2816        unit = f" {unit}" if unit else ""
2817
2818        if self.SINGLE_STRING_INTERVAL:
2819            this = expression.this.name if expression.this else ""
2820            return f"INTERVAL '{this}{unit}'" if this else f"INTERVAL{unit}"
2821
2822        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2823        if this:
2824            unwrapped = isinstance(expression.this, self.UNWRAPPED_INTERVAL_VALUES)
2825            this = f" {this}" if unwrapped else f" ({this})"
2826
2827        return f"INTERVAL{this}{unit}"
def return_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Return) -> str:
2829    def return_sql(self, expression: exp.Return) -> str:
2830        return f"RETURN {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def reference_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Reference) -> str:
2832    def reference_sql(self, expression: exp.Reference) -> str:
2833        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2834        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
2835        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
2836        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", flat=True, sep=" ")
2837        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
2838        return f"REFERENCES {this}{expressions}{options}"
def anonymous_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Anonymous) -> str:
2840    def anonymous_sql(self, expression: exp.Anonymous) -> str:
2841        return self.func(self.sql(expression, "this"), *expression.expressions)
def paren_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Paren) -> str:
2843    def paren_sql(self, expression: exp.Paren) -> str:
2844        sql = self.seg(self.indent(self.sql(expression, "this")), sep="")
2845        return f"({sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}"
def neg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Neg) -> str:
2847    def neg_sql(self, expression: exp.Neg) -> str:
2848        # This makes sure we don't convert "- - 5" to "--5", which is a comment
2849        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
2850        sep = " " if this_sql[0] == "-" else ""
2851        return f"-{sep}{this_sql}"
def not_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Not) -> str:
2853    def not_sql(self, expression: exp.Not) -> str:
2854        return f"NOT {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def alias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Alias) -> str:
2856    def alias_sql(self, expression: exp.Alias) -> str:
2857        alias = self.sql(expression, "alias")
2858        alias = f" AS {alias}" if alias else ""
2859        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}{alias}"
def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PivotAlias) -> str:
2861    def pivotalias_sql(self, expression: exp.PivotAlias) -> str:
2862        alias = expression.args["alias"]
2863        identifier_alias = isinstance(alias, exp.Identifier)
2864
2865        if identifier_alias and not self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2866            alias.replace(exp.Literal.string(alias.output_name))
2867        elif not identifier_alias and self.UNPIVOT_ALIASES_ARE_IDENTIFIERS:
2868            alias.replace(exp.to_identifier(alias.output_name))
2869
2870        return self.alias_sql(expression)
def aliases_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Aliases) -> str:
2872    def aliases_sql(self, expression: exp.Aliases) -> str:
2873        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS ({self.expressions(expression, flat=True)})"
def atindex_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2875    def atindex_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2876        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2877        index = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2878        return f"{this} AT {index}"
def attimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2880    def attimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.AtTimeZone) -> str:
2881        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2882        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2883        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone}"
def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2885    def fromtimezone_sql(self, expression: exp.FromTimeZone) -> str:
2886        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2887        zone = self.sql(expression, "zone")
2888        return f"{this} AT TIME ZONE {zone} AT TIME ZONE 'UTC'"
def add_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Add) -> str:
2890    def add_sql(self, expression: exp.Add) -> str:
2891        return self.binary(expression, "+")
def and_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.And, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2893    def and_sql(
2894        self, expression: exp.And, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2895    ) -> str:
2896        return self.connector_sql(expression, "AND", stack)
def or_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Or, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2898    def or_sql(
2899        self, expression: exp.Or, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2900    ) -> str:
2901        return self.connector_sql(expression, "OR", stack)
def xor_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Xor, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2903    def xor_sql(
2904        self, expression: exp.Xor, stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None
2905    ) -> str:
2906        return self.connector_sql(expression, "XOR", stack)
def connector_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Connector, op: str, stack: Optional[List[str | sqlglot.expressions.Expression]] = None) -> str:
2908    def connector_sql(
2909        self,
2910        expression: exp.Connector,
2911        op: str,
2912        stack: t.Optional[t.List[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
2913    ) -> str:
2914        if stack is not None:
2915            if expression.expressions:
2916                stack.append(self.expressions(expression, sep=f" {op} "))
2917            else:
2918                stack.append(expression.right)
2919                if expression.comments and self.comments:
2920                    for comment in expression.comments:
2921                        if comment:
2922                            op += f" /*{self.pad_comment(comment)}*/"
2923                stack.extend((op, expression.left))
2924            return op
2925
2926        stack = [expression]
2927        sqls: t.List[str] = []
2928        ops = set()
2929
2930        while stack:
2931            node = stack.pop()
2932            if isinstance(node, exp.Connector):
2933                ops.add(getattr(self, f"{node.key}_sql")(node, stack))
2934            else:
2935                sql = self.sql(node)
2936                if sqls and sqls[-1] in ops:
2937                    sqls[-1] += f" {sql}"
2938                else:
2939                    sqls.append(sql)
2940
2941        sep = "\n" if self.pretty and self.too_wide(sqls) else " "
2942        return sep.join(sqls)
def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2944    def bitwiseand_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseAnd) -> str:
2945        return self.binary(expression, "&")
def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2947    def bitwiseleftshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseLeftShift) -> str:
2948        return self.binary(expression, "<<")
def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2950    def bitwisenot_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseNot) -> str:
2951        return f"~{self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2953    def bitwiseor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseOr) -> str:
2954        return self.binary(expression, "|")
def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2956    def bitwiserightshift_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseRightShift) -> str:
2957        return self.binary(expression, ">>")
def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2959    def bitwisexor_sql(self, expression: exp.BitwiseXor) -> str:
2960        return self.binary(expression, "^")
def cast_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Cast, safe_prefix: Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2962    def cast_sql(self, expression: exp.Cast, safe_prefix: t.Optional[str] = None) -> str:
2963        format_sql = self.sql(expression, "format")
2964        format_sql = f" FORMAT {format_sql}" if format_sql else ""
2965        to_sql = self.sql(expression, "to")
2966        to_sql = f" {to_sql}" if to_sql else ""
2967        action = self.sql(expression, "action")
2968        action = f" {action}" if action else ""
2969        return f"{safe_prefix or ''}CAST({self.sql(expression, 'this')} AS{to_sql}{format_sql}{action})"
def currentdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentDate) -> str:
2971    def currentdate_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentDate) -> str:
2972        zone = self.sql(expression, "this")
2973        return f"CURRENT_DATE({zone})" if zone else "CURRENT_DATE"
def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2975    def currenttimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.CurrentTimestamp) -> str:
2976        return self.func("CURRENT_TIMESTAMP", expression.this)
def collate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Collate) -> str:
2978    def collate_sql(self, expression: exp.Collate) -> str:
2979        if self.COLLATE_IS_FUNC:
2980            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
2981        return self.binary(expression, "COLLATE")
def command_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Command) -> str:
2983    def command_sql(self, expression: exp.Command) -> str:
2984        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {expression.text('expression').strip()}"
def comment_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comment) -> str:
2986    def comment_sql(self, expression: exp.Comment) -> str:
2987        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2988        kind = expression.args["kind"]
2989        materialized = " MATERIALIZED" if expression.args.get("materialized") else ""
2990        exists_sql = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
2991        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
2992        return f"COMMENT{exists_sql}ON{materialized} {kind} {this} IS {expression_sql}"
def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2994    def mergetreettlaction_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTLAction) -> str:
2995        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
2996        delete = " DELETE" if expression.args.get("delete") else ""
2997        recompress = self.sql(expression, "recompress")
2998        recompress = f" RECOMPRESS {recompress}" if recompress else ""
2999        to_disk = self.sql(expression, "to_disk")
3000        to_disk = f" TO DISK {to_disk}" if to_disk else ""
3001        to_volume = self.sql(expression, "to_volume")
3002        to_volume = f" TO VOLUME {to_volume}" if to_volume else ""
3003        return f"{this}{delete}{recompress}{to_disk}{to_volume}"
def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3005    def mergetreettl_sql(self, expression: exp.MergeTreeTTL) -> str:
3006        where = self.sql(expression, "where")
3007        group = self.sql(expression, "group")
3008        aggregates = self.expressions(expression, key="aggregates")
3009        aggregates = self.seg("SET") + self.seg(aggregates) if aggregates else ""
3010
3011        if not (where or group or aggregates) and len(expression.expressions) == 1:
3012            return f"TTL {self.expressions(expression, flat=True)}"
3013
3014        return f"TTL{self.seg(self.expressions(expression))}{where}{group}{aggregates}"
def transaction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Transaction) -> str:
3016    def transaction_sql(self, expression: exp.Transaction) -> str:
3017        return "BEGIN"
def commit_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Commit) -> str:
3019    def commit_sql(self, expression: exp.Commit) -> str:
3020        chain = expression.args.get("chain")
3021        if chain is not None:
3022            chain = " AND CHAIN" if chain else " AND NO CHAIN"
3023
3024        return f"COMMIT{chain or ''}"
def rollback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Rollback) -> str:
3026    def rollback_sql(self, expression: exp.Rollback) -> str:
3027        savepoint = expression.args.get("savepoint")
3028        savepoint = f" TO {savepoint}" if savepoint else ""
3029        return f"ROLLBACK{savepoint}"
def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterColumn) -> str:
3031    def altercolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterColumn) -> str:
3032        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3033
3034        dtype = self.sql(expression, "dtype")
3035        if dtype:
3036            collate = self.sql(expression, "collate")
3037            collate = f" COLLATE {collate}" if collate else ""
3038            using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3039            using = f" USING {using}" if using else ""
3040            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DATA TYPE {dtype}{collate}{using}"
3041
3042        default = self.sql(expression, "default")
3043        if default:
3044            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} SET DEFAULT {default}"
3045
3046        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3047        if comment:
3048            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} COMMENT {comment}"
3049
3050        allow_null = expression.args.get("allow_null")
3051        drop = expression.args.get("drop")
3052
3053        if not drop and not allow_null:
3054            self.unsupported("Unsupported ALTER COLUMN syntax")
3055
3056        if allow_null is not None:
3057            keyword = "DROP" if drop else "SET"
3058            return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} {keyword} NOT NULL"
3059
3060        return f"ALTER COLUMN {this} DROP DEFAULT"
def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3062    def alterdiststyle_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterDistStyle) -> str:
3063        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3064        if not isinstance(expression.this, exp.Var):
3065            this = f"KEY DISTKEY {this}"
3066        return f"ALTER DISTSTYLE {this}"
def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3068    def altersortkey_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSortKey) -> str:
3069        compound = " COMPOUND" if expression.args.get("compound") else ""
3070        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3071        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3072        expressions = f"({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3073        return f"ALTER{compound} SORTKEY {this or expressions}"
def renametable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameTable) -> str:
3075    def renametable_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameTable) -> str:
3076        if not self.RENAME_TABLE_WITH_DB:
3077            # Remove db from tables
3078            expression = expression.transform(
3079                lambda n: exp.table_(n.this) if isinstance(n, exp.Table) else n
3080            ).assert_is(exp.RenameTable)
3081        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3082        return f"RENAME TO {this}"
def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RenameColumn) -> str:
3084    def renamecolumn_sql(self, expression: exp.RenameColumn) -> str:
3085        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3086        old_column = self.sql(expression, "this")
3087        new_column = self.sql(expression, "to")
3088        return f"RENAME COLUMN{exists} {old_column} TO {new_column}"
def alterset_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterSet) -> str:
3090    def alterset_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterSet) -> str:
3091        exprs = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3092        return f"SET {exprs}"
def altertable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
3094    def altertable_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3095        actions = expression.args["actions"]
3096
3097        if isinstance(actions[0], exp.ColumnDef):
3098            actions = self.add_column_sql(expression)
3099        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Schema):
3100            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", prefix="ADD COLUMNS ")
3101        elif isinstance(actions[0], exp.Delete):
3102            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3103        else:
3104            actions = self.expressions(expression, key="actions", flat=True)
3105
3106        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3107        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3108        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3109        only = " ONLY" if expression.args.get("only") else ""
3110        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options")
3111        options = f", {options}" if options else ""
3112        return f"ALTER TABLE{exists}{only} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}{on_cluster} {actions}{options}"
def add_column_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AlterTable) -> str:
3114    def add_column_sql(self, expression: exp.AlterTable) -> str:
3115        if self.ALTER_TABLE_INCLUDE_COLUMN_KEYWORD:
3116            return self.expressions(
3117                expression,
3118                key="actions",
3119                prefix="ADD COLUMN ",
3120            )
3121        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression, key='actions', flat=True)}"
def droppartition_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DropPartition) -> str:
3123    def droppartition_sql(self, expression: exp.DropPartition) -> str:
3124        expressions = self.expressions(expression)
3125        exists = " IF EXISTS " if expression.args.get("exists") else " "
3126        return f"DROP{exists}{expressions}"
def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AddConstraint) -> str:
3128    def addconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.AddConstraint) -> str:
3129        return f"ADD {self.expressions(expression)}"
def distinct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distinct) -> str:
3131    def distinct_sql(self, expression: exp.Distinct) -> str:
3132        this = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3133
3134        if not self.MULTI_ARG_DISTINCT and len(expression.expressions) > 1:
3135            case = exp.case()
3136            for arg in expression.expressions:
3137                case = case.when(arg.is_(exp.null()), exp.null())
3138            this = self.sql(case.else_(f"({this})"))
3139
3140        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3141
3142        on = self.sql(expression, "on")
3143        on = f" ON {on}" if on else ""
3144        return f"DISTINCT{this}{on}"
def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3146    def ignorenulls_sql(self, expression: exp.IgnoreNulls) -> str:
3147        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "IGNORE NULLS")
def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.RespectNulls) -> str:
3149    def respectnulls_sql(self, expression: exp.RespectNulls) -> str:
3150        return self._embed_ignore_nulls(expression, "RESPECT NULLS")
def havingmax_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.HavingMax) -> str:
3152    def havingmax_sql(self, expression: exp.HavingMax) -> str:
3153        this_sql = self.sql(expression, "this")
3154        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3155        kind = "MAX" if expression.args.get("max") else "MIN"
3156        return f"{this_sql} HAVING {kind} {expression_sql}"
def intdiv_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IntDiv) -> str:
3158    def intdiv_sql(self, expression: exp.IntDiv) -> str:
3159        return self.sql(
3160            exp.Cast(
3161                this=exp.Div(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression),
3162                to=exp.DataType(this=exp.DataType.Type.INT),
3163            )
3164        )
def dpipe_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DPipe) -> str:
3166    def dpipe_sql(self, expression: exp.DPipe) -> str:
3167        if self.dialect.STRICT_STRING_CONCAT and expression.args.get("safe"):
3168            return self.func(
3169                "CONCAT", *(exp.cast(e, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT) for e in expression.flatten())
3170            )
3171        return self.binary(expression, "||")
def div_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Div) -> str:
3173    def div_sql(self, expression: exp.Div) -> str:
3174        l, r = expression.left, expression.right
3175
3176        if not self.dialect.SAFE_DIVISION and expression.args.get("safe"):
3177            r.replace(exp.Nullif(this=r.copy(), expression=exp.Literal.number(0)))
3178
3179        if self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and not expression.args.get("typed"):
3180            if not l.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES) and not r.is_type(*exp.DataType.REAL_TYPES):
3181                l.replace(exp.cast(l.copy(), to=exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3182
3183        elif not self.dialect.TYPED_DIVISION and expression.args.get("typed"):
3184            if l.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES) and r.is_type(*exp.DataType.INTEGER_TYPES):
3185                return self.sql(
3186                    exp.cast(
3187                        l / r,
3188                        to=exp.DataType.Type.BIGINT,
3189                    )
3190                )
3191
3192        return self.binary(expression, "/")
def overlaps_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Overlaps) -> str:
3194    def overlaps_sql(self, expression: exp.Overlaps) -> str:
3195        return self.binary(expression, "OVERLAPS")
def distance_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Distance) -> str:
3197    def distance_sql(self, expression: exp.Distance) -> str:
3198        return self.binary(expression, "<->")
def dot_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Dot) -> str:
3200    def dot_sql(self, expression: exp.Dot) -> str:
3201        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}.{self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def eq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.EQ) -> str:
3203    def eq_sql(self, expression: exp.EQ) -> str:
3204        return self.binary(expression, "=")
def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3206    def propertyeq_sql(self, expression: exp.PropertyEQ) -> str:
3207        return self.binary(expression, ":=")
def escape_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Escape) -> str:
3209    def escape_sql(self, expression: exp.Escape) -> str:
3210        return self.binary(expression, "ESCAPE")
def glob_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Glob) -> str:
3212    def glob_sql(self, expression: exp.Glob) -> str:
3213        return self.binary(expression, "GLOB")
def gt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GT) -> str:
3215    def gt_sql(self, expression: exp.GT) -> str:
3216        return self.binary(expression, ">")
def gte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GTE) -> str:
3218    def gte_sql(self, expression: exp.GTE) -> str:
3219        return self.binary(expression, ">=")
def ilike_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILike) -> str:
3221    def ilike_sql(self, expression: exp.ILike) -> str:
3222        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE")
def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ILikeAny) -> str:
3224    def ilikeany_sql(self, expression: exp.ILikeAny) -> str:
3225        return self.binary(expression, "ILIKE ANY")
def is_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Is) -> str:
3227    def is_sql(self, expression: exp.Is) -> str:
3228        if not self.IS_BOOL_ALLOWED and isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Boolean):
3229            return self.sql(
3230                expression.this if expression.expression.this else exp.not_(expression.this)
3231            )
3232        return self.binary(expression, "IS")
def like_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Like) -> str:
3234    def like_sql(self, expression: exp.Like) -> str:
3235        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE")
def likeany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LikeAny) -> str:
3237    def likeany_sql(self, expression: exp.LikeAny) -> str:
3238        return self.binary(expression, "LIKE ANY")
def similarto_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.SimilarTo) -> str:
3240    def similarto_sql(self, expression: exp.SimilarTo) -> str:
3241        return self.binary(expression, "SIMILAR TO")
def lt_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LT) -> str:
3243    def lt_sql(self, expression: exp.LT) -> str:
3244        return self.binary(expression, "<")
def lte_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LTE) -> str:
3246    def lte_sql(self, expression: exp.LTE) -> str:
3247        return self.binary(expression, "<=")
def mod_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mod) -> str:
3249    def mod_sql(self, expression: exp.Mod) -> str:
3250        return self.binary(expression, "%")
def mul_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Mul) -> str:
3252    def mul_sql(self, expression: exp.Mul) -> str:
3253        return self.binary(expression, "*")
def neq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NEQ) -> str:
3255    def neq_sql(self, expression: exp.NEQ) -> str:
3256        return self.binary(expression, "<>")
def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3258    def nullsafeeq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeEQ) -> str:
3259        return self.binary(expression, "IS NOT DISTINCT FROM")
def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3261    def nullsafeneq_sql(self, expression: exp.NullSafeNEQ) -> str:
3262        return self.binary(expression, "IS DISTINCT FROM")
def slice_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Slice) -> str:
3264    def slice_sql(self, expression: exp.Slice) -> str:
3265        return self.binary(expression, ":")
def sub_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Sub) -> str:
3267    def sub_sql(self, expression: exp.Sub) -> str:
3268        return self.binary(expression, "-")
def trycast_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TryCast) -> str:
3270    def trycast_sql(self, expression: exp.TryCast) -> str:
3271        return self.cast_sql(expression, safe_prefix="TRY_")
def try_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Try) -> str:
3273    def try_sql(self, expression: exp.Try) -> str:
3274        if not self.TRY_SUPPORTED:
3275            self.unsupported("Unsupported TRY function")
3276            return self.sql(expression, "this")
3277
3278        return self.func("TRY", expression.this)
def log_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Log) -> str:
3280    def log_sql(self, expression: exp.Log) -> str:
3281        this = expression.this
3282        expr = expression.expression
3283
3284        if self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is False:
3285            this, expr = expr, this
3286        elif self.dialect.LOG_BASE_FIRST is None and expr:
3287            if this.name in ("2", "10"):
3288                return self.func(f"LOG{this.name}", expr)
3289
3290            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported logarithm with base {self.sql(this)}")
3291
3292        return self.func("LOG", this, expr)
def use_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Use) -> str:
3294    def use_sql(self, expression: exp.Use) -> str:
3295        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3296        kind = f" {kind}" if kind else ""
3297        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3298        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3299        return f"USE{kind}{this}"
def binary(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3301    def binary(self, expression: exp.Binary, op: str) -> str:
3302        op = self.maybe_comment(op, comments=expression.comments)
3303        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {op} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Func) -> str:
3305    def function_fallback_sql(self, expression: exp.Func) -> str:
3306        args = []
3307
3308        for key in expression.arg_types:
3309            arg_value = expression.args.get(key)
3310
3311            if isinstance(arg_value, list):
3312                for value in arg_value:
3313                    args.append(value)
3314            elif arg_value is not None:
3315                args.append(arg_value)
3316
3317        if self.normalize_functions:
3318            name = expression.sql_name()
3319        else:
3320            name = (expression._meta and expression.meta.get("name")) or expression.sql_name()
3321
3322        return self.func(name, *args)
def func( self, name: str, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType], prefix: str = '(', suffix: str = ')') -> str:
3324    def func(
3325        self,
3326        name: str,
3327        *args: t.Optional[exp.Expression | str],
3328        prefix: str = "(",
3329        suffix: str = ")",
3330    ) -> str:
3331        return f"{self.normalize_func(name)}{prefix}{self.format_args(*args)}{suffix}"
def format_args(self, *args: Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression, NoneType]) -> str:
3333    def format_args(self, *args: t.Optional[str | exp.Expression]) -> str:
3334        arg_sqls = tuple(self.sql(arg) for arg in args if arg is not None)
3335        if self.pretty and self.too_wide(arg_sqls):
3336            return self.indent("\n" + ",\n".join(arg_sqls) + "\n", skip_first=True, skip_last=True)
3337        return ", ".join(arg_sqls)
def too_wide(self, args: Iterable) -> bool:
3339    def too_wide(self, args: t.Iterable) -> bool:
3340        return sum(len(arg) for arg in args) > self.max_text_width
def format_time( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, inverse_time_mapping: Optional[Dict[str, str]] = None, inverse_time_trie: Optional[Dict] = None) -> Optional[str]:
3342    def format_time(
3343        self,
3344        expression: exp.Expression,
3345        inverse_time_mapping: t.Optional[t.Dict[str, str]] = None,
3346        inverse_time_trie: t.Optional[t.Dict] = None,
3347    ) -> t.Optional[str]:
3348        return format_time(
3349            self.sql(expression, "format"),
3350            inverse_time_mapping or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_MAPPING,
3351            inverse_time_trie or self.dialect.INVERSE_TIME_TRIE,
3352        )
def expressions( self, expression: Optional[sqlglot.expressions.Expression] = None, key: Optional[str] = None, sqls: Optional[Collection[Union[str, sqlglot.expressions.Expression]]] = None, flat: bool = False, indent: bool = True, skip_first: bool = False, skip_last: bool = False, sep: str = ', ', prefix: str = '', dynamic: bool = False, new_line: bool = False) -> str:
3354    def expressions(
3355        self,
3356        expression: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None,
3357        key: t.Optional[str] = None,
3358        sqls: t.Optional[t.Collection[str | exp.Expression]] = None,
3359        flat: bool = False,
3360        indent: bool = True,
3361        skip_first: bool = False,
3362        skip_last: bool = False,
3363        sep: str = ", ",
3364        prefix: str = "",
3365        dynamic: bool = False,
3366        new_line: bool = False,
3367    ) -> str:
3368        expressions = expression.args.get(key or "expressions") if expression else sqls
3369
3370        if not expressions:
3371            return ""
3372
3373        if flat:
3374            return sep.join(sql for sql in (self.sql(e) for e in expressions) if sql)
3375
3376        num_sqls = len(expressions)
3377
3378        # These are calculated once in case we have the leading_comma / pretty option set, correspondingly
3379        if self.pretty and not self.leading_comma:
3380            stripped_sep = sep.strip()
3381
3382        result_sqls = []
3383        for i, e in enumerate(expressions):
3384            sql = self.sql(e, comment=False)
3385            if not sql:
3386                continue
3387
3388            comments = self.maybe_comment("", e) if isinstance(e, exp.Expression) else ""
3389
3390            if self.pretty:
3391                if self.leading_comma:
3392                    result_sqls.append(f"{sep if i > 0 else ''}{prefix}{sql}{comments}")
3393                else:
3394                    result_sqls.append(
3395                        f"{prefix}{sql}{stripped_sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}{comments}"
3396                    )
3397            else:
3398                result_sqls.append(f"{prefix}{sql}{comments}{sep if i + 1 < num_sqls else ''}")
3399
3400        if self.pretty and (not dynamic or self.too_wide(result_sqls)):
3401            if new_line:
3402                result_sqls.insert(0, "")
3403                result_sqls.append("")
3404            result_sql = "\n".join(result_sqls)
3405        else:
3406            result_sql = "".join(result_sqls)
3407        return (
3408            self.indent(result_sql, skip_first=skip_first, skip_last=skip_last)
3409            if indent
3410            else result_sql
3411        )
def op_expressions( self, op: str, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3413    def op_expressions(self, op: str, expression: exp.Expression, flat: bool = False) -> str:
3414        flat = flat or isinstance(expression.parent, exp.Properties)
3415        expressions_sql = self.expressions(expression, flat=flat)
3416        if flat:
3417            return f"{op} {expressions_sql}"
3418        return f"{self.seg(op)}{self.sep() if expressions_sql else ''}{expressions_sql}"
def naked_property(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Property) -> str:
3420    def naked_property(self, expression: exp.Property) -> str:
3421        property_name = exp.Properties.PROPERTY_TO_NAME.get(expression.__class__)
3422        if not property_name:
3423            self.unsupported(f"Unsupported property {expression.__class__.__name__}")
3424        return f"{property_name} {self.sql(expression, 'this')}"
def tag_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Tag) -> str:
3426    def tag_sql(self, expression: exp.Tag) -> str:
3427        return f"{expression.args.get('prefix')}{self.sql(expression.this)}{expression.args.get('postfix')}"
def token_sql(self, token_type: sqlglot.tokens.TokenType) -> str:
3429    def token_sql(self, token_type: TokenType) -> str:
3430        return self.TOKEN_MAPPING.get(token_type, token_type.name)
def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3432    def userdefinedfunction_sql(self, expression: exp.UserDefinedFunction) -> str:
3433        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3434        expressions = self.no_identify(self.expressions, expression)
3435        expressions = (
3436            self.wrap(expressions) if expression.args.get("wrapped") else f" {expressions}"
3437        )
3438        return f"{this}{expressions}"
def joinhint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.JoinHint) -> str:
3440    def joinhint_sql(self, expression: exp.JoinHint) -> str:
3441        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3442        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3443        return f"{this}({expressions})"
def kwarg_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Kwarg) -> str:
3445    def kwarg_sql(self, expression: exp.Kwarg) -> str:
3446        return self.binary(expression, "=>")
def when_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.When) -> str:
3448    def when_sql(self, expression: exp.When) -> str:
3449        matched = "MATCHED" if expression.args["matched"] else "NOT MATCHED"
3450        source = " BY SOURCE" if self.MATCHED_BY_SOURCE and expression.args.get("source") else ""
3451        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3452        condition = f" AND {condition}" if condition else ""
3453
3454        then_expression = expression.args.get("then")
3455        if isinstance(then_expression, exp.Insert):
3456            this = self.sql(then_expression, "this")
3457            this = f"INSERT {this}" if this else "INSERT"
3458            then = self.sql(then_expression, "expression")
3459            then = f"{this} VALUES {then}" if then else this
3460        elif isinstance(then_expression, exp.Update):
3461            if isinstance(then_expression.args.get("expressions"), exp.Star):
3462                then = f"UPDATE {self.sql(then_expression, 'expressions')}"
3463            else:
3464                then = f"UPDATE SET {self.expressions(then_expression, flat=True)}"
3465        else:
3466            then = self.sql(then_expression)
3467        return f"WHEN {matched}{source}{condition} THEN {then}"
def merge_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Merge) -> str:
3469    def merge_sql(self, expression: exp.Merge) -> str:
3470        table = expression.this
3471        table_alias = ""
3472
3473        hints = table.args.get("hints")
3474        if hints and table.alias and isinstance(hints[0], exp.WithTableHint):
3475            # T-SQL syntax is MERGE ... <target_table> [WITH (<merge_hint>)] [[AS] table_alias]
3476            table_alias = f" AS {self.sql(table.args['alias'].pop())}"
3477
3478        this = self.sql(table)
3479        using = f"USING {self.sql(expression, 'using')}"
3480        on = f"ON {self.sql(expression, 'on')}"
3481        expressions = self.expressions(expression, sep=" ", indent=False)
3482        sep = self.sep()
3483
3484        return self.prepend_ctes(
3485            expression, f"MERGE INTO {this}{table_alias}{sep}{using}{sep}{on}{sep}{expressions}"
3486        )
def tochar_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToChar) -> str:
3488    def tochar_sql(self, expression: exp.ToChar) -> str:
3489        if expression.args.get("format"):
3490            self.unsupported("Format argument unsupported for TO_CHAR/TO_VARCHAR function")
3491
3492        return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.TEXT))
def tonumber_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToNumber) -> str:
3494    def tonumber_sql(self, expression: exp.ToNumber) -> str:
3495        if not self.SUPPORTS_TO_NUMBER:
3496            self.unsupported("Unsupported TO_NUMBER function")
3497            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3498
3499        fmt = expression.args.get("format")
3500        if not fmt:
3501            self.unsupported("Conversion format is required for TO_NUMBER")
3502            return self.sql(exp.cast(expression.this, exp.DataType.Type.DOUBLE))
3503
3504        return self.func("TO_NUMBER", expression.this, fmt)
def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictProperty) -> str:
3506    def dictproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictProperty) -> str:
3507        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3508        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3509        settings_sql = self.expressions(expression, key="settings", sep=" ")
3510        args = f"({self.sep('')}{settings_sql}{self.seg(')', sep='')}" if settings_sql else "()"
3511        return f"{this}({kind}{args})"
def dictrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictRange) -> str:
3513    def dictrange_sql(self, expression: exp.DictRange) -> str:
3514        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3515        max = self.sql(expression, "max")
3516        min = self.sql(expression, "min")
3517        return f"{this}(MIN {min} MAX {max})"
def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3519    def dictsubproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DictSubProperty) -> str:
3520        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'value')}"
def oncluster_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.OnCluster) -> str:
3522    def oncluster_sql(self, expression: exp.OnCluster) -> str:
3523        return ""
def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3525    def clusteredbyproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.ClusteredByProperty) -> str:
3526        expressions = self.expressions(expression, key="expressions", flat=True)
3527        sorted_by = self.expressions(expression, key="sorted_by", flat=True)
3528        sorted_by = f" SORTED BY ({sorted_by})" if sorted_by else ""
3529        buckets = self.sql(expression, "buckets")
3530        return f"CLUSTERED BY ({expressions}){sorted_by} INTO {buckets} BUCKETS"
def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.AnyValue) -> str:
3532    def anyvalue_sql(self, expression: exp.AnyValue) -> str:
3533        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3534        having = self.sql(expression, "having")
3535
3536        if having:
3537            this = f"{this} HAVING {'MAX' if expression.args.get('max') else 'MIN'} {having}"
3538
3539        return self.func("ANY_VALUE", this)
def querytransform_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.QueryTransform) -> str:
3541    def querytransform_sql(self, expression: exp.QueryTransform) -> str:
3542        transform = self.func("TRANSFORM", *expression.expressions)
3543        row_format_before = self.sql(expression, "row_format_before")
3544        row_format_before = f" {row_format_before}" if row_format_before else ""
3545        record_writer = self.sql(expression, "record_writer")
3546        record_writer = f" RECORDWRITER {record_writer}" if record_writer else ""
3547        using = f" USING {self.sql(expression, 'command_script')}"
3548        schema = self.sql(expression, "schema")
3549        schema = f" AS {schema}" if schema else ""
3550        row_format_after = self.sql(expression, "row_format_after")
3551        row_format_after = f" {row_format_after}" if row_format_after else ""
3552        record_reader = self.sql(expression, "record_reader")
3553        record_reader = f" RECORDREADER {record_reader}" if record_reader else ""
3554        return f"{transform}{row_format_before}{record_writer}{using}{schema}{row_format_after}{record_reader}"
def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3556    def indexconstraintoption_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexConstraintOption) -> str:
3557        key_block_size = self.sql(expression, "key_block_size")
3558        if key_block_size:
3559            return f"KEY_BLOCK_SIZE = {key_block_size}"
3560
3561        using = self.sql(expression, "using")
3562        if using:
3563            return f"USING {using}"
3564
3565        parser = self.sql(expression, "parser")
3566        if parser:
3567            return f"WITH PARSER {parser}"
3568
3569        comment = self.sql(expression, "comment")
3570        if comment:
3571            return f"COMMENT {comment}"
3572
3573        visible = expression.args.get("visible")
3574        if visible is not None:
3575            return "VISIBLE" if visible else "INVISIBLE"
3576
3577        engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "engine_attr")
3578        if engine_attr:
3579            return f"ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {engine_attr}"
3580
3581        secondary_engine_attr = self.sql(expression, "secondary_engine_attr")
3582        if secondary_engine_attr:
3583            return f"SECONDARY_ENGINE_ATTRIBUTE = {secondary_engine_attr}"
3584
3585        self.unsupported("Unsupported index constraint option.")
3586        return ""
def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3588    def checkcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.CheckColumnConstraint) -> str:
3589        enforced = " ENFORCED" if expression.args.get("enforced") else ""
3590        return f"CHECK ({self.sql(expression, 'this')}){enforced}"
def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3592    def indexcolumnconstraint_sql(self, expression: exp.IndexColumnConstraint) -> str:
3593        kind = self.sql(expression, "kind")
3594        kind = f"{kind} INDEX" if kind else "INDEX"
3595        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3596        this = f" {this}" if this else ""
3597        index_type = self.sql(expression, "index_type")
3598        index_type = f" USING {index_type}" if index_type else ""
3599        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3600        expressions = f" ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3601        options = self.expressions(expression, key="options", sep=" ")
3602        options = f" {options}" if options else ""
3603        return f"{kind}{this}{index_type}{expressions}{options}"
def nvl2_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Nvl2) -> str:
3605    def nvl2_sql(self, expression: exp.Nvl2) -> str:
3606        if self.NVL2_SUPPORTED:
3607            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3608
3609        case = exp.Case().when(
3610            expression.this.is_(exp.null()).not_(copy=False),
3611            expression.args["true"],
3612            copy=False,
3613        )
3614        else_cond = expression.args.get("false")
3615        if else_cond:
3616            case.else_(else_cond, copy=False)
3617
3618        return self.sql(case)
def comprehension_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Comprehension) -> str:
3620    def comprehension_sql(self, expression: exp.Comprehension) -> str:
3621        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3622        expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3623        iterator = self.sql(expression, "iterator")
3624        condition = self.sql(expression, "condition")
3625        condition = f" IF {condition}" if condition else ""
3626        return f"{this} FOR {expr} IN {iterator}{condition}"
def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3628    def columnprefix_sql(self, expression: exp.ColumnPrefix) -> str:
3629        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')}({self.sql(expression, 'expression')})"
def opclass_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Opclass) -> str:
3631    def opclass_sql(self, expression: exp.Opclass) -> str:
3632        return f"{self.sql(expression, 'this')} {self.sql(expression, 'expression')}"
def predict_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Predict) -> str:
3634    def predict_sql(self, expression: exp.Predict) -> str:
3635        model = self.sql(expression, "this")
3636        model = f"MODEL {model}"
3637        table = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3638        table = f"TABLE {table}" if not isinstance(expression.expression, exp.Subquery) else table
3639        parameters = self.sql(expression, "params_struct")
3640        return self.func("PREDICT", model, table, parameters or None)
def forin_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ForIn) -> str:
3642    def forin_sql(self, expression: exp.ForIn) -> str:
3643        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3644        expression_sql = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3645        return f"FOR {this} DO {expression_sql}"
def refresh_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Refresh) -> str:
3647    def refresh_sql(self, expression: exp.Refresh) -> str:
3648        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3649        table = "" if isinstance(expression.this, exp.Literal) else "TABLE "
3650        return f"REFRESH {table}{this}"
def operator_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Operator) -> str:
3652    def operator_sql(self, expression: exp.Operator) -> str:
3653        return self.binary(expression, f"OPERATOR({self.sql(expression, 'operator')})")
def toarray_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ToArray) -> str:
3655    def toarray_sql(self, expression: exp.ToArray) -> str:
3656        arg = expression.this
3657        if not arg.type:
3658            from sqlglot.optimizer.annotate_types import annotate_types
3659
3660            arg = annotate_types(arg)
3661
3662        if arg.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.ARRAY):
3663            return self.sql(arg)
3664
3665        cond_for_null = arg.is_(exp.null())
3666        return self.sql(exp.func("IF", cond_for_null, exp.null(), exp.array(arg, copy=False)))
def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3668    def tsordstotime_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTime) -> str:
3669        this = expression.this
3670        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTime) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIME):
3671            return self.sql(this)
3672
3673        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIME))
def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3675    def tsordstotimestamp_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) -> str:
3676        this = expression.this
3677        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToTimestamp) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP):
3678            return self.sql(this)
3679
3680        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.TIMESTAMP))
def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3682    def tsordstodate_sql(self, expression: exp.TsOrDsToDate) -> str:
3683        this = expression.this
3684        time_format = self.format_time(expression)
3685
3686        if time_format and time_format not in (self.dialect.TIME_FORMAT, self.dialect.DATE_FORMAT):
3687            return self.sql(
3688                exp.cast(
3689                    exp.StrToTime(this=this, format=expression.args["format"]),
3690                    exp.DataType.Type.DATE,
3691                )
3692            )
3693
3694        if isinstance(this, exp.TsOrDsToDate) or this.is_type(exp.DataType.Type.DATE):
3695            return self.sql(this)
3696
3697        return self.sql(exp.cast(this, exp.DataType.Type.DATE))
def unixdate_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.UnixDate) -> str:
3699    def unixdate_sql(self, expression: exp.UnixDate) -> str:
3700        return self.sql(
3701            exp.func(
3702                "DATEDIFF",
3703                expression.this,
3704                exp.cast(exp.Literal.string("1970-01-01"), exp.DataType.Type.DATE),
3705                "day",
3706            )
3707        )
def lastday_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.LastDay) -> str:
3709    def lastday_sql(self, expression: exp.LastDay) -> str:
3710        if self.LAST_DAY_SUPPORTS_DATE_PART:
3711            return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
3712
3713        unit = expression.text("unit")
3714        if unit and unit != "MONTH":
3715            self.unsupported("Date parts are not supported in LAST_DAY.")
3716
3717        return self.func("LAST_DAY", expression.this)
def dateadd_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DateAdd) -> str:
3719    def dateadd_sql(self, expression: exp.DateAdd) -> str:
3720        from sqlglot.dialects.dialect import unit_to_str
3721
3722        return self.func(
3723            "DATE_ADD", expression.this, expression.expression, unit_to_str(expression)
3724        )
def arrayany_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ArrayAny) -> str:
3726    def arrayany_sql(self, expression: exp.ArrayAny) -> str:
3727        if self.CAN_IMPLEMENT_ARRAY_ANY:
3728            filtered = exp.ArrayFilter(this=expression.this, expression=expression.expression)
3729            filtered_not_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=filtered).neq(0)
3730            original_is_empty = exp.ArraySize(this=expression.this).eq(0)
3731            return self.sql(exp.paren(original_is_empty.or_(filtered_not_empty)))
3732
3733        from sqlglot.dialects import Dialect
3734
3735        # SQLGlot's executor supports ARRAY_ANY, so we don't wanna warn for the SQLGlot dialect
3736        if self.dialect.__class__ != Dialect:
3737            self.unsupported("ARRAY_ANY is unsupported")
3738
3739        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def generateseries_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3741    def generateseries_sql(self, expression: exp.GenerateSeries) -> str:
3742        expression.set("is_end_exclusive", None)
3743        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def struct_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Struct) -> str:
3745    def struct_sql(self, expression: exp.Struct) -> str:
3746        expression.set(
3747            "expressions",
3748            [
3749                exp.alias_(e.expression, e.name if e.this.is_string else e.this)
3750                if isinstance(e, exp.PropertyEQ)
3751                else e
3752                for e in expression.expressions
3753            ],
3754        )
3755
3756        return self.function_fallback_sql(expression)
def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.PartitionRange) -> str:
3758    def partitionrange_sql(self, expression: exp.PartitionRange) -> str:
3759        low = self.sql(expression, "this")
3760        high = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3761
3762        return f"{low} TO {high}"
def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.TruncateTable) -> str:
3764    def truncatetable_sql(self, expression: exp.TruncateTable) -> str:
3765        target = "DATABASE" if expression.args.get("is_database") else "TABLE"
3766        tables = f" {self.expressions(expression)}"
3767
3768        exists = " IF EXISTS" if expression.args.get("exists") else ""
3769
3770        on_cluster = self.sql(expression, "cluster")
3771        on_cluster = f" {on_cluster}" if on_cluster else ""
3772
3773        identity = self.sql(expression, "identity")
3774        identity = f" {identity} IDENTITY" if identity else ""
3775
3776        option = self.sql(expression, "option")
3777        option = f" {option}" if option else ""
3778
3779        partition = self.sql(expression, "partition")
3780        partition = f" {partition}" if partition else ""
3781
3782        return f"TRUNCATE {target}{exists}{tables}{on_cluster}{identity}{option}{partition}"
def convert_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Convert) -> str:
3786    def convert_sql(self, expression: exp.Convert) -> str:
3787        to = expression.this
3788        value = expression.expression
3789        style = expression.args.get("style")
3790        safe = expression.args.get("safe")
3791        strict = expression.args.get("strict")
3792
3793        if not to or not value:
3794            return ""
3795
3796        # Retrieve length of datatype and override to default if not specified
3797        if not seq_get(to.expressions, 0) and to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3798            to = exp.DataType.build(to.this, expressions=[exp.Literal.number(30)], nested=False)
3799
3800        transformed: t.Optional[exp.Expression] = None
3801        cast = exp.Cast if strict else exp.TryCast
3802
3803        # Check whether a conversion with format (T-SQL calls this 'style') is applicable
3804        if isinstance(style, exp.Literal) and style.is_int:
3805            from sqlglot.dialects.tsql import TSQL
3806
3807            style_value = style.name
3808            converted_style = TSQL.CONVERT_FORMAT_MAPPING.get(style_value)
3809            if not converted_style:
3810                self.unsupported(f"Unsupported T-SQL 'style' value: {style_value}")
3811
3812            fmt = exp.Literal.string(converted_style)
3813
3814            if to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATE:
3815                transformed = exp.StrToDate(this=value, format=fmt)
3816            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.DATETIME:
3817                transformed = exp.StrToTime(this=value, format=fmt)
3818            elif to.this in self.PARAMETERIZABLE_TEXT_TYPES:
3819                transformed = cast(this=exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt), to=to, safe=safe)
3820            elif to.this == exp.DataType.Type.TEXT:
3821                transformed = exp.TimeToStr(this=value, format=fmt)
3822
3823        if not transformed:
3824            transformed = cast(this=value, to=to, safe=safe)
3825
3826        return self.sql(transformed)
def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.CopyParameter) -> str:
3882    def copyparameter_sql(self, expression: exp.CopyParameter) -> str:
3883        option = self.sql(expression, "this")
3884
3885        if expression.expressions:
3886            upper = option.upper()
3887
3888            # Snowflake FILE_FORMAT options are separated by whitespace
3889            sep = " " if upper == "FILE_FORMAT" else ", "
3890
3891            # Databricks copy/format options do not set their list of values with EQ
3892            op = " " if upper in ("COPY_OPTIONS", "FORMAT_OPTIONS") else " = "
3893            values = self.expressions(expression, flat=True, sep=sep)
3894            return f"{option}{op}({values})"
3895
3896        value = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3897
3898        if not value:
3899            return option
3900
3901        op = " = " if self.COPY_PARAMS_EQ_REQUIRED else " "
3902
3903        return f"{option}{op}{value}"
def credentials_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Credentials) -> str:
3905    def credentials_sql(self, expression: exp.Credentials) -> str:
3906        cred_expr = expression.args.get("credentials")
3907        if isinstance(cred_expr, exp.Literal):
3908            # Redshift case: CREDENTIALS <string>
3909            credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3910            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS {credentials}" if credentials else ""
3911        else:
3912            # Snowflake case: CREDENTIALS = (...)
3913            credentials = self.expressions(expression, key="credentials", flat=True, sep=" ")
3914            credentials = f"CREDENTIALS = ({credentials})" if cred_expr is not None else ""
3915
3916        storage = self.sql(expression, "storage")
3917        storage = f"STORAGE_INTEGRATION = {storage}" if storage else ""
3918
3919        encryption = self.expressions(expression, key="encryption", flat=True, sep=" ")
3920        encryption = f" ENCRYPTION = ({encryption})" if encryption else ""
3921
3922        iam_role = self.sql(expression, "iam_role")
3923        iam_role = f"IAM_ROLE {iam_role}" if iam_role else ""
3924
3925        region = self.sql(expression, "region")
3926        region = f" REGION {region}" if region else ""
3927
3928        return f"{credentials}{storage}{encryption}{iam_role}{region}"
def copy_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Copy) -> str:
3930    def copy_sql(self, expression: exp.Copy) -> str:
3931        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3932        this = f" INTO {this}" if self.COPY_HAS_INTO_KEYWORD else f" {this}"
3933
3934        credentials = self.sql(expression, "credentials")
3935        credentials = self.seg(credentials) if credentials else ""
3936        kind = self.seg("FROM" if expression.args.get("kind") else "TO")
3937        files = self.expressions(expression, key="files", flat=True)
3938
3939        sep = ", " if self.dialect.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_CSV else " "
3940        params = self.expressions(
3941            expression,
3942            key="params",
3943            sep=sep,
3944            new_line=True,
3945            skip_last=True,
3946            skip_first=True,
3947            indent=self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED,
3948        )
3949
3950        if params:
3951            if self.COPY_PARAMS_ARE_WRAPPED:
3952                params = f" WITH ({params})"
3953            elif not self.pretty:
3954                params = f" {params}"
3955
3956        return f"COPY{this}{kind} {files}{credentials}{params}"
def semicolon_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.Semicolon) -> str:
3958    def semicolon_sql(self, expression: exp.Semicolon) -> str:
3959        return ""
def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
3961    def datadeletionproperty_sql(self, expression: exp.DataDeletionProperty) -> str:
3962        on_sql = "ON" if expression.args.get("on") else "OFF"
3963        filter_col: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "filter_column")
3964        filter_col = f"FILTER_COLUMN={filter_col}" if filter_col else None
3965        retention_period: t.Optional[str] = self.sql(expression, "retention_period")
3966        retention_period = f"RETENTION_PERIOD={retention_period}" if retention_period else None
3967
3968        if filter_col or retention_period:
3969            on_sql = self.func("ON", filter_col, retention_period)
3970
3971        return f"DATA_DELETION={on_sql}"
def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql( self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint) -> str:
3973    def maskingpolicycolumnconstraint_sql(
3974        self, expression: exp.MaskingPolicyColumnConstraint
3975    ) -> str:
3976        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3977        expressions = self.expressions(expression, flat=True)
3978        expressions = f" USING ({expressions})" if expressions else ""
3979        return f"MASKING POLICY {this}{expressions}"
def gapfill_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.GapFill) -> str:
3981    def gapfill_sql(self, expression: exp.GapFill) -> str:
3982        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3983        this = f"TABLE {this}"
3984        return self.func("GAP_FILL", this, *[v for k, v in expression.args.items() if k != "this"])
def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
3986    def scope_resolution(self, rhs: str, scope_name: str) -> str:
3987        return self.func("SCOPE_RESOLUTION", scope_name or None, rhs)
def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: sqlglot.expressions.ScopeResolution) -> str:
3989    def scoperesolution_sql(self, expression: exp.ScopeResolution) -> str:
3990        this = self.sql(expression, "this")
3991        expr = expression.expression
3992
3993        if isinstance(expr, exp.Func):
3994            # T-SQL's CLR functions are case sensitive
3995            expr = f"{self.sql(expr, 'this')}({self.format_args(*expr.expressions)})"
3996        else:
3997            expr = self.sql(expression, "expression")
3998
3999        return self.scope_resolution(expr, this)